Many types of services can be objects of international trade. Unlike trade in goods, exporting or importing services does not necessarily mean crossing a customs border. The service can be provided to a non-resident within the customs territory of a given country, in which case the transaction will be considered international. Like payments for exports and imports of goods, international trade in services is reflected in the balance of payments. As documented in the 1999 Business Guide to GATS. (Business Guide to the GATS), a service becomes a subject of international trade if the producer of the service and its buyer are individuals or legal entities - residents of different countries, regardless of the place of the transaction between them.

International exports of services are growing faster than international exports of goods. The export of services in 1980 amounted to 402 billion dollars, and in 2014 it (according to the WTO) - 4940 billion dollars, i.e. increased more than 12 times. The share of exports of services in the total international trade in goods and services was approximately 21% in 2014. In the future, this indicator tends to grow, which has somewhat slowed down due to the persistence of world prices for fuel and raw materials at a high level.

We think on our own. Why is the share of services in world trade in goods and services tending to increase? What factors contribute to this?

According to the WTO, Russian exports of commercial services in 2014 amounted to $65 billion (1.3% of global exports of commercial services, 22nd). Import of commercial services of Russia, according to the WTO, in 2014 amounted to 119 billion dollars, 2.5% of world imports of services (11th place among the leading countries - importers of commercial services). In general, Russia is more actively involved in the world market of services, although its share in it remains insignificant.

International trade in services in its absolute scale is significantly less than international trade in goods. The reasons for this include the following.

1. The bulk of services (especially services from state organizations) are sold within countries (this is clearly seen when comparing data on the shares of services in the GDP of individual countries and data on the share of services in international trade).
2. Trade in services, as it develops, requires more and more technical equipment. However, this level (especially in the field of telecommunications, information, transport, and tourism services) was achieved relatively recently.
3. Much more progress has been made in recent years in the liberalization of international trade in goods than in international trade in services. The shifts that were achieved by the GATT and then the WTO related primarily to trade in goods (most favored nation treatment, favorable conditions for access to domestic markets, national treatment). Services (except for the settlement of certain transport and tourism problems at the international level) for a long time remained within the competence of national governments and were not subject to multilateral regulation of international trade.

However, the dynamic growth of exports and imports of services is one of the most important characteristics of modern world trade. Many experts believe that officially published data on the volume of international trade in services underestimate the actual value of services sold in international trade. Reasons for this actual understatement include:

underestimation of spending by tourists abroad;
services are often presented as a set with goods sold abroad (and the cost of services is often fixed as part of the cost of the goods), in general, in such a situation, it can be quite difficult to separate the actual cost of goods and the cost of services;
services make up a fairly significant part of intra-company exchange within TNCs, and given that the sale of both goods and services in them is carried out at so-called transfer prices (which are often deliberately underestimated), the valuation of the services sold in this case also turns out to be underestimated;
the assessment of banking and insurance services is also underestimated, since

sometimes the income from these operations is reinvested (invested) in the same foreign countries where they were received.

In general, the completeness and reliability of the statistical accounting of international trade in services remains one of the complex and not yet fully resolved problems of international statistics.

According to the WTO statistical approaches, sectoral structure (by main types of services) of exports of commercial services It is represented by three main types: transport, tourism and the so-called others (which include a fairly wide range of services). Until the early 1980s. it was dominated by transport services, but in the following decades they gave way to "other private services" and tourism, which developed much faster. In 2014, according to the WTO, “other private services” accounted for 52% of all global exports of commercial services (because they include, in particular, such dynamically developing types of services as financial, computer and information, telecommunications, consulting services ). Tourism services accounted for 25.1% and transport services for 19.3% of global commercial service exports.

In Russia, the structure of exports of services in 2014 was as follows: 23% - tourism, 31.5% - transport services and 45.2% - other services.

Changes and geographical structure of international trade in services.

The international exchange of services is carried out primarily within the group of industrialized countries. The trend in international trade in services, as well as in international trade in goods, consists, on the one hand, in prevalence, and on the other hand, in a gradual reduction in the share of this group of countries in trade in services as a result of the activation of new industrial countries and other developing countries in the service sector. .

In terms of trade in services, the United States leads by a wide margin from other states (13.9% of world exports and 9.4% of world imports of services in 2014). The United States accounts for the largest volume of trade in services through TNC channels. Characteristically, the United States, with its traditional deficit (negative balance) in foreign trade in goods, has a significant positive balance in foreign trade in services. The UK, France, Germany, China, and the Netherlands follow the United States in terms of exports of services.

Unlike the US, Germany and China are net importers of services. Most developing countries also have a negative balance in foreign trade in services.

Russia is a net importer of commercial services. According to the balance of payments of the Russian Federation, the negative balance of Russia in trade in services in 2014 amounted to 55.3 billion dollars. Due to the growth in imports of services, the negative balance in services is increasing.

The analysis of the data makes it possible to identify the specialization of national economies in the export of services in the system of the international division of labor. In industrialized countries, these are primarily financial, telecommunications, information, business services, as well as education, health and tourism services. Some developing countries also specialize in the production and provision of services - tourism (Turkey, Egypt, Thailand, etc.), transport (Egypt, Panama and other states of the so-called "open shipping registry"), financial (offshore centers of the Caribbean and the Pacific Islands ). The role of the new industrial states, China and a number of other states in international trade in services is growing. Russia is a net exporter of transport services and has prospects here of using its Eurasian position to organize transit, promising development of services in the field of high technologies and international tourism.

SERVICES IN MODERN WORLD ECONOMY. CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SERVICES IN THE GENERAL SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN SERVICES

CHAPTER 13

Services (services) are a complex of diverse activities and commercial activities related to the satisfaction of a wide range of human needs. The Liberalization of International Transactions in Services handbook developed by UNCTAD and the World Bank defines services as follows: Services is a change in the position of an institutional unit that has occurred as a result of actions and on the basis of mutual agreement with another institutional unit.

It is easy to see that this is an extremely broad definition, covering a diverse range of operations. Therefore, it is possible to distinguish between the concept of services in the broad and narrow sense of the word. In a broad sense, services are a complex of various activities and commercial activities of a person through which he communicates with other people. In a narrow sense, services are understood as specific actions, activities that one party (partner) can offer to the other party.

Although services are traditionally regarded as the so-called "tertiary sector" of the economy, they now account for 2/3 of the world's GDP. They absolutely predominate in the economy of the United States and other industrialized countries (within 70-80% of GDP), as well as in most developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The share of services in the RF GDP in 2005 was 55.5%.

Services have a number of significant differences from goods in its material terms:

1) they are usually intangible. This intangibility and "invisibility" of most types of services is often the basis for calling foreign trade in them invisible (invisible) exports and imports;

2) services are inseparable from their source;

3) their production and consumption are usually inseparable;

4) they are characterized by inconstancy of quality, variability and perishability.

The number of services, their role in the economy and international trade is growing rapidly, primarily as a result of scientific and technical progress, the growth of international economic relations in general, and the increase in income and solvency of the population in many countries of the world. Since services are heterogeneous, there are several classifications.

The classification of services based on the UN International Standardized Industrial Classification includes:

1) utilities and construction;

2) wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels;

3) transportation, storage and communication, as well as financial intermediation;

4) defense and compulsory social services;

5) education, health care and public works;

6) other communal, social and personal services.
Most of the services under this classification are produced and consumed domestically and cannot be traded internationally.

The IMF classification used in compiling the balance of payments includes the following types of services related to payments between residents and non-residents: 1) transport; 2) trips; 3) communication; 4) construction; 5) insurance; 6) financial services; 7) computer and information services; 8) royalties and license payments; 9) other business services; 10) personal, cultural and recreational services; 11) government services.

From the point of view of the movement of factors of production, services are divided into factor services, arising in connection with the international (intercountry) movement of factors of production, primarily capital and labor, and non-factor services (non-factor services) - other types of services (transport, travel and other non-financial services).

To date, the approaches related to the division of services in international trade into tradable and non-tradable have changed. The signing of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was the result of not only the harmonization of the positions of various countries on international trade in services, but also the emergence of new theoretical and practical approaches to understanding the nature of international trade in services. Previously, theorists and practitioners divided services into tradable and non-tradable in international trade on the basis of the so-called cross-border exchange of services, i.e. such an exchange, in which the producer and consumer of the service were on opposite sides of the customs border, and the exchanged service crossed this border (by analogy with the trade in “ordinary” goods). Examples of this kind of cross-border exchange of services are postal or telecommunications services. Those services that were carried out without such cross-border exchange were considered non-tradable. However, during the preparation of the GATS agreement, a new approach to the international exchange of services was formulated, according to which this exchange can be carried out in the following main ways:

1. The service moves across the customs border in the same way as a "regular" product, when the producer and consumer are on opposite sides of the customs border.

2. A foreign producer of a service himself moves to the territory of the country where its consumer is located.

3. A foreign consumer of a service moves to the territory of the country where the service is produced.

4. Individuals move across the customs border - residents of one state, producing and / or consuming services in another state (ie, there is a combination of the second and third methods of international trade in services).

As a result of these new theoretical approaches, most of the types of services produced have moved into the category of tradable (in international trade) services. In this regard, some concepts related to the export and import of services have acquired a new meaning. So, for example, the export of goods on a chartered foreign vessel means "the export of goods on transport import services." A travel company in Russia that sends Russian tourists abroad imports tourism services, and a company that receives foreign tourists exports tourism services. A Russian professor who teaches at a foreign university and transfers part of his income to Russia is an exporter of intellectual, educational services.

In the course of international negotiations within the framework of the GATT / WTO, more than 160 types of services are taken into account, divided into 12 sectors:

1) business services (46 sectoral types of services);

2) communication services (25 types);

3) construction and engineering services (5 types);

4) distribution services (5 types);

5) general educational services (5 types);

6) environmental protection services (4 types);

7) financial services, including insurance (17 types);

8) health care and social services (4 types);

9) tourism and travel (4 types);

10) services in the field of leisure, culture and sports (5 types);

11) transport services (33 types);

12) other services.

GATS within the WTO classifies international trade in services by the way they are provided. At the same time, the following are distinguished: 1) cross-border trade in services; 2) movement of the consumer to the country where the service is consumed (consumption abroad); 3) establishing a commercial presence in the country where the service is to be provided; 4) temporary movement of individuals to another country to provide a service. The largest volume of services (about 80% in total) falls on the first and third methods.

The IMF's international financial statistics are published for three service groups: 1) transport services, 2) tourism, and 3) other private services.

Many types of services can be objects of international trade. Trade in services is non-commodity commercial transactions. Unlike trade in goods, the export or import of services does not necessarily mean that they have crossed a customs border. The service can be provided to a non-resident within the customs territory of a given country, in which case the transaction will be considered international. Like payments for exports and imports of goods, international trade in services is reflected in the balance of payments. As documented in the 1999 Business Guide to the GATS, a service becomes a subject of international trade if the producer of the service and its buyer are individuals or legal entities that are residents of different countries, regardless of the place of performance. transactions between them.

International exports of services are growing faster than international exports of goods. The export of services in 1980 amounted to 402 billion dollars, and in 2006 it amounted to (according to the WTO) 2710 billion dollars, i.e. increased more than 6 times. The share of exports of services in total international trade in goods and services is 18-20%. This figure is generally growing, and by 2015, according to IMEMO RAN, it may reach up to 30% of total international trade.

According to the WTO, Russian exports of commercial services in 2006 amounted to $30 billion (1.1% of world exports of commercial services, 25th). For comparison: in 2002 Russia's share was 0.8% of world exports of services, the 29th place among the leading countries - exporters of services. Russia's import of commercial services, according to the WTO, in 2006 amounted to $45 billion, 1.7% of world imports of services, which meant 16th place among the leading countries - importers of commercial services. For comparison: in 2002, the same figures were $21.5 billion, 1.4% of world imports of commercial services and ranked 20th among the leading countries - importers of commercial services. Thus, Russia is more actively involved in the world market of services, although its share in it remains insignificant.

Among the reasons for the dynamic growth of international trade in services are:

Scientific and technological progress and related cardinal shifts in the international division of labor (at the same time, not only the scale of the production of services is growing, but also their diversity);

The growth of the general openness of national economies, as a result of which an increasing part of services becomes an object of international trade;

Changing the structure of consumption of the population of the modern world, which is increasingly oriented towards the consumption of services;

The transition of the leading countries of the modern world, and after them other countries, to the modern “new information society”, which is based on the growth in the consumption of services, especially information ones;

The growing interconnectedness of international trade in various types of services (many of which are sold together - "in one package").

On the whole, international trade in services still lags behind international trade in goods in terms of its absolute scale. The reasons for this include the following:

1. The bulk of services (especially services from state organizations) are sold within countries (this is clearly seen when comparing data on the shares of services in the GDP of individual countries and data on the share of services in international trade).

2. Trade in services, as it develops, requires more and more technical equipment. However, this level (especially in the field of telecommunications, information, transport, and tourism services) was achieved relatively recently.

3. Much more progress has been made in recent years in the liberalization of international trade in goods than in international trade in services. The shifts that were achieved by the GATT and then the WTO related primarily to trade in goods (most favored nation treatment, favorable conditions for access to domestic markets, national treatment). Services (except for the settlement of certain transport and tourism problems at the international level) for a long time remained within the competence of national governments and were not subject to multilateral regulation of international trade.

However, one of the most important characteristics of modern world trade is the very dynamic growth of exports and imports of services. Many experts believe that officially published data on the volume of international trade in services underestimate the actual value of services sold in international trade. Reasons for this actual understatement include:

Underestimation of spending by tourists abroad;

Services are often provided as a set with goods sold abroad (and the cost of services is often fixed as part of the cost of the goods), in general, in such a situation it can be quite difficult to separate the cost of goods and the cost of services;

Services make up a fairly significant part of intra-company exchange within TNCs, and given that the sale of both goods and services in them is carried out at so-called transfer prices (which are often deliberately underestimated), the valuation of the services sold in this case also turns out to be underestimated;

The assessment of banking and insurance services is also underestimated, since sometimes the income from these operations is reinvested (invested) in the same foreign countries where they were received.

In the sectoral structure (by main types of services) exports of services until the early 80s. transport services dominated, but in the following decades they gave way to “other private services” and tourism, which developed much faster. At the beginning of the 21st century, “other private services” quite reasonably ranked first in the export of services (about 45%), since they include, in particular, such dynamically developing types of services as financial, information, communication, and consulting services.

In Russia, the structure of exports of services is currently as follows: 22.3% - tourism, 37.1% - transport services and 40.6% - other private services.

The geographical structure of international trade in services is also changing.

The international exchange of services is carried out primarily within the group of industrialized countries. The trend in international trade in services, as well as in international trade in goods, consists, on the one hand, in the prevalence, and on the other hand, in a gradual reduction in the share of this group of countries in trade in services (up to 70% in the late 90s) in as a result of the activation in the service sector of the newly industrialized countries and other developing countries.

In terms of trade in services, the United States is leading with a growing gap from other states (14.3% of world exports and 11.7% of world imports of services in 2006, according to the WTO). The United States accounts for the largest volume of trade in services through TNC channels. Characteristically, the United States, with its traditional deficit (negative balance) in foreign trade in goods, has a significant positive balance in foreign trade in services. In terms of exports of services, the United States is followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Japan.

Unlike the US, Germany, Japan, Canada, and China import more services than they export; are net importers of services. Most developing countries have a negative balance in foreign trade in services.

Russia is a net importer of commercial services. According to WTO data, Russia's negative balance in services in 2006 was $15 billion. Due to the growth in imports of services, the negative balance in services is increasing.

We can talk about the specialization of national economies in the export of services in the system of the international division of labor. In industrialized countries, these are primarily financial, telecommunications, information, business services, advanced technologies, as well as education, health and tourism services. Some developing countries also specialize in the production and provision of services - tourism (Turkey, Egypt, Thailand, etc.), transport (Egypt, Panama and other states of the so-called "open ship register"), financial (offshore centers of the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Islands ). The role of the new industrial states, China and a number of other states in international trade in services is growing. Russia is a net exporter of transport services and has prospects here of using its Eurasian position to organize transit, promising development of services in the field of high technologies and international tourism.

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. According to some estimates, trade accounts for about 80 percent of the total volume of international economic relations. Modern international economic relations, characterized by the active development of world trade, bring a lot of new and specific to the process of development of national economies.
For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. According to the definition of J. Sachs, “... the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy by isolating itself from the world economic system.”
International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.
Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.

The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.
Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.
International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total turnover of industrialized countries, the total turnover of developing countries, the total turnover of countries of a continent, region, for example, countries of Eastern Europe, etc.
The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially high-tech goods. Thus, the export of science-intensive products is more than 500 billion dollars a year, and the share of high-tech products is approaching 40% in the export of industrialized countries.
Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products. The annual growth of the world market of microelectronics up to 2010 is predicted at the level of 10-15%. In 1996, worldwide sales of electronic devices of all kinds surpassed the $1 trillion milestone. dollars.
In connection with the increase in world exports of machinery and equipment (the leaders here are industrialized countries), the exchange of relevant services has also grown sharply: scientific and technical, industrial, commercial, financial and credit. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as: engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services.
In general, world exports of services in the 1980s show a noticeable growth, which slowed down somewhat in the mid-1990s. The development of the world economy is largely determined by the growth of trade in services - transport, financial, tourism. In 1995, it reached 1230 billion dollars (export of goods, respectively, 4875 billion dollars) and thus accounted for one fifth of the total value of world trade. The figures given refer only to cross-border trade that appears in the national balance of payments. In the opinion of foreign experts, operations with services by branches of foreign companies on the territory of other countries are approximately three times larger. One of the rapidly developing areas of international trade is the trade in chemical products. An important trend of the 1990s is the very dynamic growth of the world metallurgical market. The peculiarities of this market include a relative, but quite noticeable movement in the share of traditional exporters - Japan and the EU countries. The positions of the Republic of Korea and Brazil have noticeably strengthened. The place of the largest net importers is still retained by the USA and China.
It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is explained by the creation of substitutes for raw materials, more economical use and deepening of its processing.
The tightening of environmental protection requirements aimed at limiting the emission of gases into the atmosphere and, above all, carbon dioxide, in order to prevent global climate change, in the future will have a certain impact on reducing the consumption of coal and, to some extent, oil, as the most environmentally polluted energy sources. resources. At the same time, the role of renewable energy sources and natural gas will be increased.
The long-term trends in the development of the world food market are the outstripping development of trade in comparison with the growth rates of food in individual countries. Another trend is the accelerated development of trade in finished products compared to agricultural raw materials.
Characterizing the sectoral structure of world trade in the first half of the 20th century (before the Second World War) and in subsequent decades, we see significant changes. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.
The commodity structure of world trade is changing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the deepening of the international division of labor. Currently, manufacturing products are of the greatest importance in world trade: they account for 3/4 of the world trade turnover. Particularly rapidly growing is the share of such types of products as machinery, equipment, vehicles, chemical products, manufacturing products, especially science-intensive goods. The share of food, raw materials and fuel is approximately 1/4.
In world food trade, there is a relative decrease in demand for it. To some extent, this is due to the expansion of food production in industrialized countries.
One of the fastest growing areas of international trade is the trade in chemical products. It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, their more economical use, and the deepening of their processing.
An important trend is the expansion of trade in this group of goods between industrialized countries. In connection with the growth of such trade, the exchange of services has grown sharply: scientific, technical, industrial, commercial, financial and credit. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services, which, in turn, stimulates cross-country exchange of services, especially scientific, technical, industrial, communicative financial and credit nature. At the same time, trade in services (especially such as information and computing, consulting, leasing, engineering) stimulates world trade in capital goods (Table 2.1).
The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products.

Table 2.1
Commodity structure of world exports by main
product groups, %
Continuation of the table. 2.1

As foreign trade statistics show, over the past decade and a half, there has been a stable and constant growth in world foreign trade turnover, exceeding the growth rate of GDP, which convincingly indicates that all countries are increasingly drawn into the system of the international division of labor. World exports more than doubled, up from $2 trillion. dollars in 1980 to 5.5 trillion. dollars in 1997. This means an increase in exports of more than 70% in the 80s and more than 33% in the first half of the 90s. Import indicators are close to these figures (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2
World trade results (exports and imports)
Changes, %, to the previous year Export
North America (USA and Canada) 9.5 8.0
EU 8.0 6.0
Countries with economies in transition 14.5 11.5
Japan 3.5 12.5
Latin America 12.0 3.0
Southeast Asian countries (South Korea,
Malaysia,
Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong) 14.5 15.5
Import
North America 5.5 5.5
EU 4.0 2.5
Countries with economies in transition 3.5 12.0
Japan -0.5 2.5
Latin America 11.0 10.5
Southeast Asian countries 3.5 4.0

According to tentative estimates, the world trade turnover in 1998 reached 11.9 trillion. dollars Analysis of changes in international trade, including at the present stage, involves consideration of two aspects: first, the rate of its growth in general (exports and imports) and relative to the growth of production; secondly, shifts in the structure: commodity (the ratio of the main groups of goods and services) and geographical (shares of regions, groups of countries and individual countries).
With regard to the first, it can be stated that the stable outstripping growth rates of world trade are an indicator of new qualitative features of international trade associated with an increase in the capacity of world markets. Also characteristic were the outpacing, fairly high rates of expansion of trade in finished industrial products, and in them - machinery and equipment, even higher growth rates of trade in products of communications, electrical and electronic equipment, computers, etc. The exchange of components, assemblies for units supplied in the order of industrial cooperation, within the framework of TNCs, expanded even faster. And another dynamic phenomenon is the accelerated growth of international trade in services.
All this could not but affect the radical shifts, both in the commodity and in the geographical structure of the world foreign trade exchange. At the same time, the share of the main groups of developed, developing and former socialist countries has remained practically unchanged over the past 15-20 years. In the first case, these are values of the order of 70-76%, in the second - this value is in the range of 20-24% and for the last group this figure does not exceed 6-8%.
In the commodity exchange of world foreign trade, there is an obvious upward trend in the share of finished goods, which account for more than 70% of world trade. The remaining share is divided approximately equally between agricultural exports and extractive industries. By comparison, in the middle of this century, commodities accounted for about two-thirds of exports and only one-third for manufactured goods.
Services now account for almost a quarter of international trade. That is why we consider the service market separately.

international trade

INTERNATIONAL TRADE 2

Sectoral structure of world trade 3

Trade in services and its place in international economic relations 8

Market of inventions and licenses. fourteen

References 20

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

For any country, the role of foreign trade can hardly be overestimated. By definition J. Sachs,“...the economic success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy by isolating itself from the world economic system.”

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production enhance the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the intensification of international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in world trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production also slows down.

under the term " international trade» refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of "international trade" is used in a narrower sense. It denotes, for example, the total turnover of industrialized countries, the total turnover of developing countries, the total turnover of countries of a continent, region, for example, countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

Sectoral structure of world trade

The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially high-tech goods. Thus, the export of science-intensive products is more than 500 billion dollars a year, and the share of high-tech products is approaching 40% in the export of industrialized countries.

Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products. The annual growth of the world market of microelectronics up to 2010 is predicted at the level of 10-15%. In 1996, worldwide sales of electronic devices of all kinds surpassed the $1 trillion milestone. dollars.

In connection with the increase in world exports of machinery and equipment (the leaders here are industrialized countries), the exchange of relevant services has also grown sharply: scientific and technical, industrial, commercial, financial and credit. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as: engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services.

In general, world exports of services in the 1980s show a noticeable growth, which slowed down somewhat in the mid-1990s. The development of the world economy is largely determined by the growth of trade in services - transport, financial, tourism. In 1995, it reached 1230 billion dollars (export of goods, respectively, 4875 billion dollars) and thus accounted for one fifth of the total value of world trade. The figures given refer only to cross-border trade that appears in the national balance of payments. In the opinion of foreign experts, operations with services by branches of foreign companies on the territory of other countries are approximately three times larger. One of the rapidly developing areas of international trade is the trade in chemical products. An important trend of the 1990s is the very dynamic growth of the world metallurgical market. The peculiarities of this market include a relative, but quite noticeable movement in the share of traditional exporters - Japan and the EU countries. The positions of the Republic of Korea and Brazil have noticeably strengthened. The place of the largest net importers is still retained by the USA and China.

It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is explained by the creation of substitutes for raw materials, more economical use and deepening of its processing.

The tightening of environmental protection requirements aimed at limiting the emission of gases into the atmosphere and, above all, carbon dioxide, in order to prevent global climate change, in the future will have a certain impact on reducing the consumption of coal and, to some extent, oil, as the most environmentally polluted energy sources. resources. At the same time, the role of renewable energy sources and natural gas will be increased.

The long-term trends in the development of the world food market are the outstripping development of trade in comparison with the growth rates of food in individual countries. Another trend is the accelerated development of trade in finished products compared to agricultural raw materials.

Characterizing the sectoral structure of world trade in the first half of the 20th century (before the Second World War) and in subsequent decades, we see significant changes. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.

The commodity structure of world trade is changing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the deepening of the international division of labor. Currently, manufacturing products are of the greatest importance in world trade: they account for 3/4 of the world trade turnover. The share of such types of products as machinery, equipment, vehicles, chemical products, manufacturing products, especially science-intensive goods is growing especially fast. The share of food, raw materials and fuel is approximately 1/4.

In world food trade, there is a relative decrease in demand for it. To some extent, this is due to the expansion of food production in industrialized countries.

One of the fastest growing areas of international trade is the trade in chemical products. It should be noted that there is a trend towards an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, their more economical use, and the deepening of their processing.

An important trend is the expansion of trade in this group of goods between industrialized countries. In connection with the growth of such trade, the exchange of services has grown sharply: scientific, technical, industrial, commercial, financial and credit. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services, which, in turn, stimulates cross-country exchange of services, especially scientific, technical, industrial, communicative financial and credit nature. At the same time, trade in services (especially such as information and computing, consulting, leasing, and engineering) stimulates world trade in industrial goods (Table 1).

The most rapidly growing export of electrical and electronic equipment, which accounts for more than 25% of all exports of engineering products.

Table 1

Commodity structure of world exports by main groups of goods, %*

Main product groups		1960		1988	1994
Food (including drinks and tobacco)	22,8	18,2	12,2	10,7	7,2
Raw material	31,0	16,7	7,5	5,9	4,8
mineral fuel	7,6	10,1	19,5	12,5	7,7
Manufacturing products	38,8	55,0	59,7	72,4	76,5
Equipment, vehicles	10,6	21,2	27,9	35,1	38,2
Chemical products	4,6	6,2	7,2	9,0	9,2
Other manufacturing products	23,6	27,6	24,6	28,3	29,2
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals	10,6	9,0	7,3	5,3	6,6
Textiles (yarn, fabrics, clothes)	8,7	5,4	4,9	6,8	7,6

As foreign trade statistics show, over the past decade and a half, there has been a stable and constant growth in world foreign trade turnover, exceeding the growth rate of GDP, which convincingly indicates that all countries are increasingly drawn into the system of the international division of labor. World exports more than doubled, rising from $2 trillion in 1980 to $5.5 trillion in 1997. This means an increase in exports of more than 70% in the 80s and more than 33% - for the first half of the 1990s. Nor close to these figures are the indicators of imports (Table 11.1).

General results of world trade
Trade turnover (billion dollars) 7656	10116	10359	11309	11812
Export (billion dollars) 3809	5033	5100	5574
Import (billion dollars) 3847	5083	5259	5735	6018
Changes, %, to the previous year
Export
North America (USA and Canada)	9,5	8,0
European Union	8,0	6,0
	14,5	11,5
Japan	3,5	12,5
Latin America		3,0
Southeast Asian countries (South Korea, Malaysia,
Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong)	14,5	15,5
Import
North America	5,5	5,5
European Union	4,0	2,5
Countries with economies in transition	3,5	12,0
Japan	-0,5	2,5
Latin America	11,0
Southeast Asian countries	3,5	4,0

According to tentative estimates, world trade turnover reached 11.9 trillion dollars in 1998. An analysis of changes in international trade, including at the present stage, involves consideration of two aspects: first, the rate of its growth as a whole (export and import) and regarding the growth of production; secondly, shifts in the structure:

commodity (the ratio of the main groups of goods and services) and geographical (shares of regions, groups of countries and individual countries).

With regard to the first, it can be stated that the stable outstripping growth rates of world trade are an indicator of new qualitative features of international trade associated with an increase in the capacity of world markets. Also characteristic are the outstripping, rather high rates of expansion of trade in finished industrial products, and in them - machinery and equipment, even higher growth rates of trade in products of communications, electrical and electronic equipment, computers, etc. The exchange of components, assemblies for units supplied in the order of industrial cooperation, within the framework of TNCs, expanded even faster. And another dynamic phenomenon is the accelerated growth of international trade in services.

All this could not but affect the radical shifts in both the commodity and the geographical structure of world foreign trade. At the same time, the share of the main groups of developed, developing and former socialist countries has remained practically unchanged over the past 15-20 years. In the first case, these are values of the order of 70-76%, in the second - this value is in the range of 20-24%, and for the last group this figure does not exceed 6-8%.

In the commodity exchange of world foreign trade, there is an obvious upward trend in the share of finished goods, which account for more than 70% of world trade. The remaining share is divided approximately equally between agricultural exports and extractive industries. By comparison, in the middle of this century, commodities accounted for about two-thirds of exports and only one-third for manufactured goods.

Services now account for almost a quarter of international trade. That is why we separately consider world trade in services.

Trade in services and its place in international economic relations

Along with goods, a large sector of world trade covers the services market. It includes a variety of activities, including:

Services related to foreign trade, which include additional costs for goods, maritime and other transport and insurance;

Services related to the exchange of technology, which may include capital construction, technical cooperation, management services;

Travel, which includes receipts and income from tourism and business travel;

Banking expenses, leasing, payments related to capital gains;

Wages and other earned income (this includes wages paid to foreign workers, as well as remuneration and social benefits).

What all these diverse activities have in common is that, by their very nature, they are involved in international trade; in other words, they can be defined as payments for non-commodity commercial transactions concluded between citizens of two or more independent countries and reflected in the balance of payments.

According to some experts, by the end of the 1980s, services reached 70% of world GDP, but only a small part of them was involved in world trade. Recently, their share and role in international exchange have increased significantly, primarily due to new types, and the number of their types in foreign trade exceeds 600. According to the UN International Standardized Industrial Classification, services belong to the so-called non-tradable goods, i.e. to those that are consumed in the same country where they are produced and do not move between countries. Services comprise six groups (categories 4-9 of the official classification of goods of international trade):

utilities and construction;

wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, tourist bases and campsites;

transportation (travel), storage and communication, financial intermediation;

defense and compulsory social services;

education, health and public works;

other communal, social and personal.

Information and consulting services are increasingly distinguished as a special type of services involved in international exchange. International statistics show that trade in services is one of the fastest growing sectors of the world economy, as can be seen from the data in Table. 11.3.

. World exports of services (billion dollars)
	1988	1990	1994	1996	1998*
All types of services	653,2	853,0	1100	1260	1290
Transport	167,4	209,2	250,4	315	324
including
Passenger	36,2	49,6	56,9
Freight	83,6	103,3	125
other modes of transport	47,7	56,3	68,1
Travels	190,1	246,9	321,1	415	422
Government Services	43,4	47,0	49,5	-
Other types of services	252,4	349,9	479,1	530	544

According to International Monetary Fund data, the total volume of services is about 25% of the total value of world exports, and in 1998 this value, according to rough estimates, will increase even more. Services are growing faster than foreign trade; it took only seven to eight years to double the growth compared to the 15 years it took for a similar increase in merchandise exports. The share of services provided by private firms is growing especially rapidly; during this period it has grown two and a half times.

The reasons for this growth are very diverse. The sharp decline in transport costs has increased the degree of mobility of producers and consumers of services; new forms and means of satellite communications and video technology in some cases make it possible to completely abandon the personal contact of the seller and the buyer. Technological progress has increased the demand for those services that previously had a commodity form. This applies to financial services, services of banks, insurance companies.

The absolute value of the amount of services, reflected in the statistics of the International Monetary Fund, is underestimated in comparison with the real value. Calculations of expenses of tourists, businessmen, diplomats, students during their stay abroad seem to be underestimated. It is very difficult to calculate the amount of wages paid to foreign workers and transferred by them to their own country.

The difficulty of counting is due to the fact that, as a rule, services are provided as a set with goods. Moreover, the cost of the service often makes up a significant share of the price of the goods. Services often appear in intercompany exchanges. In this case, it is often impossible to express and determine their value, since there is no market for these types of services at all. In some cases, it is impossible to separate the service from the product (for example, treating a patient with medicines).

Statistical accounting excludes income from banking and insurance operations if they are reinvested in the same country in which they were received.

In this regard, according to a number of scientists, the official statistics of the balance of payments, which indicate the annual turnover under the item "services", cannot give an accurate idea of the scale of international trade in services, the value of which, according to a number of experts, is underestimated by 40- fifty%.

The geographical distribution of trade in services provided by individual countries is extremely uneven in favor of developed countries.

The world services market is dominated by eight leading countries, which account for 2/3 of world exports of services and more than 50% of imports. The share of the top five is more than 50% of exports. At the same time, four countries: the USA, Great Britain, Germany, France account for 44% of the total world export of services.

Developing countries are characterized by a negative balance in foreign trade in services; the above, however, does not rule out that some of them are major exporters of services. For example, the Republic of Korea specializes in engineering, consulting and construction services, Mexico - in tourism, Singapore is a major financial center. Many small island states receive the bulk of their export earnings from tourism.

Russia, other CIS states and the Baltic countries, although they have potential reserves for the development of tourism, transport services (organize sea transportation), their wide export is hindered by a weak material and technical base, as well as shortcomings in the economic mechanism. Western European countries complement the high quality of their services by applying a wide range of restrictions on the use of foreign services, including those from the CIS countries.

If we talk about the distribution of the cost of services by individual types, then tourism and transport are of the greatest importance in world trade in services. The largest merchant fleet in the world belongs to Japan, followed by Great Britain, Germany and Norway. Shipping accounts for 50% of these countries' exports of services. The market for freight and passenger transport services is dominated by the United States, followed by the United Kingdom and France. They also hold the palm in the field of foreign tourism. A large volume of tourism services is provided by France, Italy, Canada, Switzerland, where tourism brings 40-50% of export earnings.

For Turkey, Spain and a number of Mediterranean states, the export of labor power in the form of unskilled workers leaving to work is of great importance.

11.5. The specifics of the services market and its regulation at the international level

Being extremely diverse both in form and content, services naturally do not form a single market characterized by the presence of common features. Tem no less can be said about the most important trends that have introduced qualitatively new moments in the development of this market.

Until very recently, the service market (with the exception of finance) was the field of activity for small and medium-sized firms. The situation has changed dramatically due to the emergence, or rather a massive entry into this market of transnational corporations, which were able to put modern telecommunications at their service, creating a global information transmission system. This led to the explosive growth of international services, which became an integral part of the firm's internal operations. Increasingly common is the break in the production chain, when it is divided into individual countries, while the information technology support for this process is concentrated in the home country. In this case, the intra-company transfer of information, technology, finance acts in the form of an interstate sale of services.

The emergence of TNCs has led to a blurring of the boundaries between individual types of services. Banks, for example, began to issue credit cards and act as transport agencies.

Operating in the most knowledge-intensive industries, TNCs are expanding the sale of the latest types of science-intensive products, a significant part of the value of which is services. So, computers are sold together with software for them, and a manufacturer of consumer electronics guarantees the buyer branded service for its equipment, which is available anywhere in the world.

The transformation of services into an integral element of the intra-production international activities of TNCs has put on the agenda the issue of the need to regulate the services market at the international, regional and sectoral levels.

To date, the current regulatory system operates at several levels, each of which is characterized by the presence of several specific organizations. Specialized intergovernmental organizations such as ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization), WTO (World Tourism Organization), IMO (International Maritime Organization) focus on the regulation of services within individual industries. If, for example, within the framework of ICAO, the unification of the rules of flight and operation of air transport, airfields, air navigation facilities is carried out, then the World Tourism Organization determines the norms and standards for the maintenance of hotels, restaurants, etc.

Quite common, especially in the mid-80s, were bilateral agreements. For example, the US-Canadian Free Trade Agreement paid great attention to the regulation of investment in the service sector. Separate agreements were concluded in the field of tourism, services, communications, computers. The agreement between the US and Israel turned out to be close in content.

At the regional level, the regulation of the services market, as a rule, is carried out within the framework of integration regional agreements. In the EU, for example, restrictions on mutual trade in goods and services have been lifted.

Globally, trade in services was regulated until recently by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, which was originally created to regulate world foreign trade. However, in the second half of the 1980s, the scope of this organization was expanded at the initiative of the United States, which is the largest supplier of services to the world market; Since the 1970s, trade in services has become an official subject of negotiations within the framework of the GATT.

The main idea of the US proposal was to use in the regulation of services the same rules that have been developed in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (publicity and unity of reading laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign producers. However, serious problems stand in the way of implementing this program, primarily related to the fact that since the consumption of a service and its production are carried out almost simultaneously, the regulation of the conditions for the production of services means the regulation of the conditions for investment.

In the field of investment, GATT uses national treatment in relation to foreign firms, that is, it provides them with the same rights as national producers. In practice, this means that the United States, while deregulating its service market, is obliged not to impose similar requirements on its partners, who retain preferential treatment for their own national (usually state-owned) firms. Such a situation, for example, has developed in Canadian-American relations in the field of transport. After deregulating transport in the early 1980s, the United States found itself in a situation where American companies were forced to compete with foreign

its market, having virtually no access to the Canadian, where there was a state monopoly.

Developing countries, for their part, seek to retain the right to control the activities of foreign firms and, above all, affiliates of TNCs, that is, they are guided by the most favored nation treatment.

At the meeting that opened in Punta del Este (Uruguay) in 1986, an agreement was reached to create an ad hoc group and start discussing issues of trade in services at the global level. Negotiations on services were taken out of the official framework of the GATT and began to be held in parallel with the discussion of the issue of trade in goods. The result of lengthy negotiations was the adoption of a special agreement, called GATT (General Agreement on Trade in Services) and consisting of three parts: a framework agreement that defines the general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries; a list of obligations of national governments to eliminate restrictions in the service industries.

The outcome of the Uruguay Round negotiations was an agreement on the liberalization of trade in services. Services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport have undergone regulation. At the urging of Europe and, above all, France, which was worried about preserving the identity of its national culture, the export sale of films and television programs was excluded from the scope of the agreement.

Since January 1, 1995, the Agreement on the regulation of trade in services has become an integral and integral part of the package of documents on the creation of the World Trade Organization. GATT operates within the framework of the WTO.

Market of inventions and licenses.

In the middle of the 20th century, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, integration processes and structural changes in the world economy, a long period of development of the international exchange of licenses was replaced by a revolutionary stage, which is characterized by a sharp intensification and growth in the volume of trade in inventions, scientific knowledge and trade secrets and the involvement of practical all countries of the world. If for the entire evolutionary period of the development of international trade in licenses (late XVIII - mid-XX century), the volume of foreign exchange earnings by the beginning of the 50s. reached 350-400 million dollars a year, then by the beginning of the 90s. of the current century, it has increased by more than 80 times and amounted to 30 billion dollars a year. At the present stage, we should talk about a qualitatively new state of international trade in licenses, the development of which has led to the formation in the world capitalist economy of a new, independent world trade market, which has an increasing impact on the entire system of world economic relations of modern society.

The data presented in Table 2 characterize the geographical structure of the international trade in licenses, its main centers and the changes that took place in them in 1960-1989. They provide an opportunity not only to assess the alignment of forces in the field of international licensed trade, but also to trace changes in the most important economic regions of the world over the past 30 years. Obviously, the dynamics of the international trade in licenses in these regions reflects not only the changing role and place of individual states in the world capitalist economy, but also testifies to the growing role of licensed trade in foreign economic activity.

Top exporting countries in 1994*

Countries	Export, billion dollars	Share in world trade, %
USA	512	12,3
Germany	421	10,1
Japan	397	9,5
France	236	5,7
Great Britain	205	4,9
Italy	189	4,5
Canada	165	4,0
Hong Kong	152	3,7
Holland	148	3,6
Belgium/Luxembourg	131	3,1
China	121	2,9
Singapore	96	2,3
South Korea	96	2,3
Taiwan	93	2,2
Spain	73	1,7

For many decades, the United States has occupied a leading position among the countries of the capitalist world in terms of the turnover of licensed trade, but from 1960 to 1989 their share decreased from 38.6% to 27.9%. This was mainly due to a decrease in the share of the United States in the export of licenses from 70.8% to 47.0%. In these years, exports and imports of licenses grew at the highest rates in the countries of Western Europe, which provided them with superiority in turnover, imports, and since 1989 in exports of licenses among other centers of international trade in licenses. At the same time, American firms firmly hold leading positions in the export of licenses compared with firms in other countries of the capitalist world. The leading role of the United States in the export of licenses is determined not only by the country's enormous scientific and technical potential, but also by the active policy of economic expansion pursued by American transnational corporations based on the joint export of capital and the sale of licenses. An analysis of the directions of this policy shows that, while somewhat weakening their activity in license trade with independent firms, American corporations are simultaneously strengthening their positions in license trade between parent firms located in the United States and their numerous branches and subsidiaries abroad. This provides the monopolies with significantly higher profits and a strong position in foreign markets.

In the import of licenses over the past 50 years, the share of the entire US has increased significantly. This indicates that the United States significantly changed its policy regarding the purchase of foreign technology and dramatically expanded their volumes in the late 1980s. According to this indicator, in 1989 the United States was among the leading importing countries of licenses, significantly lagging behind only Japan.

In 1960-1989 The industrialized countries of Western Europe remained the most dynamic center of world capitalist trade in licenses. In 1989, according to the turnover of licensed trade, the following places after the USA (14060 million dollars) and Japan (7340 million dollars) were taken (million dollars): Great Britain - 4333, Italy - 4134, Germany - 4050, France - 3021, the Netherlands - 2390, Belgium and Luxembourg - 1869, Sweden - 1041.

A significant increase in public funds and R&D spending by private firms and an increase in capital investment abroad have allowed the leading Western European countries to achieve high efficiency in using scientific and technical potential abroad by selling licenses. The development of specialization processes in scientific research and cooperation in the industrial use of their results contributed to the growth of licensed trade mainly between the countries of the region, as well as with the USA and Japan. Following the United States, Western European countries are leading in terms of revenues from the sale of licenses. In 1989, these receipts were (million dollars): Great Britain - 2205 (8.8%), Italy - 1619 (6.4%), Germany - 1360 (5.4%), France - 1146 (4, 6%), the Netherlands - 773 (3.1%), Belgium and Luxembourg - 705 (2.8%).

Due to the high rates of development of licensed trade in the countries of Western Europe over a 30-year period, their share in the world license exchange has significantly increased: in terms of turnover from 34.4 to 49%, exports from 28.6 to 42.3%, imports from 40 to 55 .6%. In terms of turnover, export and import of licenses, this region ranks first in the capitalist license market.

One of the important centers of capitalist licensed trade is Japan. Along with the FRG, during the entire post-war period, this country occupied a leading position in the capitalist world in importing licenses. In 1960-1989 Japan has increased license purchases by more than 56 times. The acquired licenses are used by Japanese firms not only to re-equip the leading sectors of their economy, but also as a potential for the development of their own scientific and technical research. The increase in R&D spending and the refinement of licensed developments allowed Japan to by the beginning of the 80s. significantly intensify the export of licenses. Significantly lagging behind in the 70s. In 1989, Japan ranked third in terms of sales of licenses from the United States and the leading countries of Western Europe in terms of license sales.

The most numerous group in the capitalist sector of licensed trade is made up of the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. An important criterion for their association in the field of licensed trade is not geographical, but economic features. These countries are characterized by a relatively low level of development of their national economic, scientific and technical potential, which significantly limits not only the sale, but also the purchase and the possibility of using foreign licenses. The share of these countries in the export of licenses in 1989 was 1.4% and only doubled compared to 1970.

In international statistics, there is no data indicating the size of production and trade in goods manufactured under licenses, with the exception of only a few data on the level of production under licenses of certain types of products.

Estimates made on the basis of statistical data on payments for the use of licenses show that in 1989 in the capitalist world, products worth more than 500 billion dollars were produced under licenses.

To characterize the global license market, its sectoral structure is of undoubted interest. The formation of industry markets is determined by development trends and structural changes in the global economy, specialization of production and concentration of R&D and inventive activity in science-intensive industries where goods with high consumer properties are produced. The relationship between the volumes and directions of investment in R&D and the state and directions of development of industry license markets can be easily traced by analyzing the available statistical data, although the impact of R&D

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World Trade - moving goods and materials abroad in exchange for cash flows.

Modern features of international trade:

- a sharp increase in the volume of international trade in goods and services;

- a change in the commodity structure of world exports towards an increase in the exchange of science-intensive products and services;

- the transformation from a simple sale on the foreign market of a certain surplus of products into pre-agreed deliveries of goods between cooperating enterprises of different countries;

– a tendency to increase the import dependence of a number of countries;

– regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the GATT - WTO;

- liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of "free economic zones";

– vigorous activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

- developing countries mainly remain suppliers of raw materials, foodstuffs and relatively simple finished products to the world market. The desire of developing countries to diversify their exports at the expense of industrial group goods often meets in one form or another opposition from industrialized countries;

- individual developing countries, primarily NIS (newly industrialized countries: Singapore, Thailand, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan), managed to achieve significant changes in the restructuring of their exports, increasing the share of finished products, industrial products, including machinery and equipment;

– a very noticeable trend has been an increase in the volume of intra-industry trade between developed countries (between automobile, aviation, electronic, steel and other companies);

– the growing role of the Asia-Pacific region in the system of international economic relations, including in the field of international trade. Among the promising leaders of world trade are China, India;

- after the collapse of the socialist bloc, trade between the EU and the countries of the former socialist bloc increased sharply.

Sectoral structure of world trade

1. The most dynamic and intensively developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially science-intensive goods.

2. Significantly increased the role of trade in machinery and equipment. The fastest growing exports of electrical and electronic equipment.

3. One of the fastest growing areas of international trade is trade in chemical products.

4. An important trend of the 1990s is the very dynamic growth of the world metallurgical market. The peculiarities of this market include a relative, but quite noticeable decrease in the share of traditional exporters - Japan and the EU countries. The positions of the Republic of Korea and Brazil have noticeably strengthened. The place of the largest net importers is still retained by the USA and China.

5. In general, the development of the world economy is largely determined by the growth of trade in services - transport, financial, tourism.

6. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of the world trade was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And, finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s is the trade in machinery and equipment.

Competitiveness of sectors of the Russian economy:

First group- Competitive resource industries according to world standards (oil, gas, timber, diamond industry, partly energy, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy). These sectors employ 4% of all employed in the economy and 17% in industry. They create about half of the added value in the industry and approximately 15% of GDP, if we consider in domestic prices (in world prices - much more). Russia ranks first in the export of natural gas, rough diamonds, aluminium, nickel and nitrogen fertilizers; third-fourth place in the export of oil, oil products, electricity, potash fertilizers and rolled ferrous metals.

Second group- manufacturing industries with great scientific and technical potential, capable of producing products that are competitive not only in the domestic market, but also (under certain conditions) in the foreign market. These include the aerospace, nuclear industries, partly power engineering, heavy machine tool building, biotechnology, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as the military industry. This group of industries needs a protectionist government policy to maintain competitiveness in the domestic market.

If Russia firmly holds the second place in the conventional arms market, providing about 13% of the world's needs, then Russia's position in the markets of civilian finished products and high-tech products is extremely weak. Today, Russia exports 5 times less high-tech products than Thailand, 8 times less than Mexico, 10 times less than China, and 14 times less than Malaysia and South Korea.

Third group- these are industries that can hardly be competitive in the foreign market, but are able to satisfy a significant part of the demand in the domestic market: automotive, agricultural engineering, light and food industries, production of building materials. All these industries, taken together, provide about 18% of industrial output, but almost do not export their products.

The group of non-competitive industries under consideration includes agriculture (it accounts for about 15% of those employed in the national economy, but only 7% of GDP). In relation to this group of industries, it is probably necessary, firstly, to actively use protective import tariffs and other legal protectionist measures (while maintaining reasonable competition) and, secondly, to encourage domestic demand for their products in every possible way (through the system of public procurement, leasing, etc.).

In international trade in services, Russia also focuses on traditional and low-tech niches: tourism and transport services. In the second half of the 1990s, these two positions accounted for 75 to 80% of all Russian exports of services

Similar information.

Fundamentals of international trade in goods. Sectoral structure of world trade

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international trade

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Sectoral structure of world trade

Trade in services and its place in international economic relations

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