Literature
1. Program and methodological materials: Reading. Primary school / Comp. T.V. Ignatieva. - M.: Bustard, 2000. - 288s.
2. Programs of educational institutions. Primary grades (1-4). In two parts. Part 1. / Comp. T.V. Ignatieva, L.A. Vokhmyanina. M.: Enlightenment, 2000 - 318s.
3. Klimanova L.F. Learning through communication and culture. // Primary school - 1993. - No. 12. - P. 45-52
4. Levin V.A. When a little student becomes a big reader. - M., 1994.
5. Kudina G.N., Novlyanskaya Z.N. . Literature as a subject of the aesthetic cycle. 1 class. - M., 1994.
At present, elementary school provides training according to programs that set the task of literary education. These are the programs: 1) "Literary reading" (V.G. Goretsky and L.F. . Klimanov); 2) "Reading and Literature" (O.V. Dzhezheley); 3) "Literary reading" (O.V. Kubasova); 4) "Reading and primary literary education" (R.N. and E.V. Buneev); 5) "Literature as a subject of the aesthetic cycle" (G.N. Kudina and Z.N. Novlyanskaya); 6) "Primary literary education" (V.A. Levin); 7) the program of literary education "ABC of verbal art" (L.E. Streltsova and N.D. Tamarchenko); 8) “Literary reading. Native word "(M.G. Grekhneva, K.E. Korepova).
The program "Literary reading" for grades 2-4 of elementary school (authors V. G. Goretsky, L. F. Klimanova)
Main goal learning - familiarizing younger students with literature, understanding literature as an art of the word. Reading is considered both as an object of learning and as a means of mastering a literary work.
The course of literary reading is aimed at solving the following tasks:
To develop in children the ability to fully perceive a work of art, empathize with the characters, and emotionally respond to what they read;
- to teach children to feel and understand a work of art, its figurative language, means of expression;
– to form the ability to recreate artistic images, develop creative and recreative imagination, associative thinking students
- develop poetic ear, cultivate artistic taste;
- to form the need for constant reading of books, to develop interest in literary creativity;
- to enrich the sensory experience of students, their ideas about the world and nature;
- to ensure the development of the speech of schoolchildren and to form reading skills and speech skills;
Expand the horizons of children through reading books of various genres, diverse in content and topics;
Work with various types texts;
To create conditions for the formation of the need for independent reading of works of art.
One of the objectives of the course is the development of speech skills, the main of which is the skill of reading. In parallel with the formation of reading fluency, work is underway to form the ability to comprehend the meaning of what is read, to generalize and highlight the main thing.
When learning to read, children get acquainted with elementary information of a literary nature: information about the author-writer, about the theme of the work, its genre, features of small folklore genres.
Students get acquainted with the works of folklore, the work of Russian and foreign writers, classics of Russian literature.
Distinctive feature program is an introduction to its content section " Experience of creative activity and emotional-sensory attitude to reality". Work on the program in this direction begins with “the development of the ability of schoolchildren to rejoice and be surprised in the process of communicating with nature, people, objects of national culture, to find and notice beauty in the world around.” The program aims at the formation of the ability to "express in the word their impressions, their vision of the subject, the state of nature and man" and it is proposed to activate "the ability of students to fully perceive a work of art on the basis of purposeful activity."
In the context of literary education, the child's creative activity is recognized, firstly, as strictly obligatory, secondly, assuming work not only on the basis of the text read, but also on the author's own creativity, and thirdly, fixing attention on the form of the work.
An integral part of the course of literary reading is extracurricular reading, which is carried out in the form of independent home reading and lessons. extracurricular reading.
Program "Reading and Primary Literary Education" (authors R.N. Buneev, E.V. Buneeva) is an integral part of the set of programs of continuous courses of the Educational program "School 2100".
Target reading lessons: 1) teach children to read fiction, 2) arouse interest in reading, 3) lay the foundations for the formation of a competent reader who knows both the reading technique and the methods of reading comprehension, who knows books and knows how to choose them independently.
Achieving these goals involves solving the following tasks:
1) the formation of reading techniques and methods of understanding the text;
2) introducing children to literature as the art of the word through the introduction of elements of literary analysis of texts and practical familiarization with individual theoretical and literary concepts;
3) development of oral and written speech, creative abilities of children;
4) acquaintance through literature with the world of human relations, the formation of personality.
The works are selected in such a way that the child's ideas about the world around him gradually expand, i.e. according to the complexity of the literary material. In books for reading are implemented the principle of genre diversity, the principle of the optimal ratio of works of children's literature and works from "adult literature" included in the circle of children's reading; monographic principle; traditional thematic principle, the principle of updating reading topics.
This program provides organization of independent home reading children. Its main feature is that children read chapters from a work in class, and they read the whole work on their own at home. the principle of a holistic perception of a work of art.
The program outlines the topics of reading, requirements for reading technique, shows reading comprehension techniques and elements of literary analysis of the text.
Target course:
1) the formation of reading skills, methods and techniques of working on a text and a book,
2) acquaintance with children's literature and, on this basis, the creation of prerequisites for general and literary development,
3) realization of creative abilities.
The program is developed in the system of classical elementary school, which assumes that training in the field of the native language takes place in three directions: 1) reading and literature course; 2) writing and language; 3) oral speech and conversation.
basis subject are the principle of speech development, applied orientation speech skills. Therefore, the course "Reading and Literature" can be carried out productively only if, in parallel with the lessons of reading, lessons of language and oral speech are held.
specificity course is a clear distinction between training in the field of reading skills, semantic and artistic and aesthetic development of the text and books, mastery of literary propaedeutics, the ability to realize the creative abilities of children. According to these features, the program is built. It includes: reading circle; reading technique; system of elements of the theory of literature; a set of practical techniques and methods that help to master the content of works and the choice of books; speech creative activity based on reading and in connection with reading a book. Knowledge, abilities, skills are delimited by periods corresponding to the development of a younger student. The reading circle is distributed according to the concentrations: preparatory and first periods- folklore, Russian literature of the XX century, second period- folklore; domestic and foreign literature of the XIX-XX centuries, artistic and scientific-artistic, reference literature; third period- folklore, fairy tale, fiction and scientific literature in its entirety, reference literature.
The program has a serious scientific justification and has been implemented practically. The requirements for children are quite accessible and take into account individual development child.
To the training center for reading and literature in the program of O.V. Jezhel set the task of forming reader. The practical implementation of the program is correlated with the periods of study. The principle of arranging the material by periods of study - concentric. It involves the allocation at each stage of the leading sections, groups of knowledge, skills; corresponding to the age capabilities of students and the peculiarity of the development of reading skills. In addition, the author implemented a mechanism for teaching reading proper, showing how and at what stage advancement in the reading skill is carried out.
Preparatory period - with the technique of reading from the zero level to reading aloud at a rate of up to 40 words per minute with syllabic reading with the transition to reading in whole words: the formation of a reading mechanism, acquaintance with literature based on examining and reading a book.
The first period - intensive mastering of the reading technique, since only the rate of reading aloud from 60 words per minute when reading in whole words suggests the possibility of independent mastering of the text at the level of thought-inference and provides a basis to bring the child to an in-depth understanding of what is being read, purposeful formation of independent mastery of the actual content of the text.
Second period - the transition of the pace of reading from 60 to 90 words per minute and the development of productive reading to oneself: the formation of methods and techniques that help to master the content of works and the choice of books.
Third period - the formation of the ability to read aloud 90-110 words per minute and the transition to mastering the method of reading to oneself: awareness of the elements of the theory of literature in the system and relationships, the formation of speech creative activity based on and in connection with reading books.
The tasks of each period are implemented in the system lessons different types:
Lessons that provide for the development of skills that are a means of mastering a literary work (for example, a lesson where reading skills are purposefully formed, the ability to draw up a work plan is mastered, etc.);
Lessons, where it is supposed to work with a single literary work, using the methods of its comprehensive development;
Lessons that provide the formation of the ability to independently choose and read books in accordance with reading capabilities and personal needs;
Lessons, the main purpose of which is the realization of the creative abilities of students in the study of literature;
Lessons of the integral type.
basis programs "Primary literary education» (author V. A. Levin) are the concept of introducing children to art, the artistic development of the child, for which certain pedagogical conditions. A child can join art as a reader, listener, author of his own work, etc. In this regard, in the program of V.A. Levin "Primary literary education" stands out in two rows tasks:
1) the formation of skills and abilities to work with the work, the formation of a communicative attitude to art;
2) preservation of direct emotional-holistic perception of a work of art; development of the ability to feel the harmony of the work. To complete this series of tasks, it is necessary to “just read with children”, when an adult reads a work without for the child, but for myself with the child, when a child has the opportunity to empathize with the heroes of the work together with an adult, discuss what they read, share their feelings.
Primary literary education involves four steps artistic development younger student.
essence first (preparatory) stages of primary literary education - the inclusion of children in game creativity and communication with each other. The main condition is the activity of the child, his readiness to act, to participate in the game and in communication. The attention of the teacher and children at this stage of education is focused not on the result of the activity, but on the process itself (drawing, writing), the indicator of success is the child's interest in classmates and in himself. Educational material for games are folklore works: nursery rhymes, tongue twisters, teasers, as well as children's poems, built according to the laws of game works.
For the 1st stage of education, a group of games called "What we read, we play" was proposed.
On the second stage there is an awareness of works of folk art (teasers, nursery rhymes, fairy tales) as literary texts.
Third the stage involves a change in the position of the game to the position of the listener and reader (the student discovers the author in himself).
On the fourth stages, an evaluative communicative and artistic attitude to art is formed. The concept is built on a psychological and literary basis.
The series of books "My First Library" contains the best literary works - from myths, legends, legends of different peoples to the works of classic writers from all over the world.
V.A. Levin emphasizes that one of the important tasks of the teacher is "taking care of children's literary creativity, since the child in a special way preserves and accumulates the reader's experience in his" writing "work"
Program " ABC of verbal art” (authors L. E. Streltsova, N. D. Tamarchenko) created within the framework of liberal education Russian Federation. Unlike other programs, this program presents literature as an art form, the nature and laws of which are studied by literary studies. The authors sought to ensure that the categories of literary science were as much as possible consistent with the psychological and pedagogical features of the process of teaching children, and the methods and techniques of teaching corresponded to the specifics of the art of the word and the natural process of reading activity. Representations and concepts are connected with the necessary educational activities and are built in the sequence that corresponds to the formation of conceptual thinking and reader culture.
Target programs - the formation of a culture of perception of a work of art among younger students, the education of a qualified reader.
The authors of the program believe that it is impossible to give systematic literary knowledge to a first-grader child who cannot read and has no reading experience. Therefore, a necessary link in this program is the presence of propaedeutic (preparatory) work.
In the program of L.E. Streltsova and N.D. Tamarchenko, this is the preparatory stage "The Word". The authors of the program emphasize that this is the stage of the preliterate development of the child, the time when he acts as listener literary work. At this stage, in working with children, the oral form of artistic speech predominates - children's game folklore. This makes it possible to single out a verbal statement from the situation of the game, to understand its form, to recognize it in similar situations. The main task of the preparatory stage is to help the child make the transition from the position of the listener, the “co-author” of the text, to the position of the reader-interpreter, i.e. take the first step in distancing (detachment) from the text. In this, the leading role is played by the presentation of a familiar artistic text to the child in a graphically fixed form.
On the first stage(grade 1) the child moves from the position of "co-author" to the position of the reader (the reader must not only listen and reproduce, act out, but also interpret the text).
On the second stage(Grade 2) the reader-child, starting from his life experience, should feel both “outside” and “inside” the text, i.e. learn to distinguish between artistic reality and ordinary reality. The material for classes in grade 2 is mythological stories adapted for children, folk tales.
In 3rd grade ( third stage) children-readers get acquainted with detailed retellings and fragments of translations of heroic poems of antiquity and the Middle Ages. The concepts of "heroic character" and "epic author" are mastered.
On the fourth stage(Grade 4) examines the relationship between the traditional artistic language and the author's fiction. Material - plots and motifs of myth, fairy tales and epic in Russian poetry of the 19th-20th centuries.
Of great interest is a set of books that implement this program.
Well " Literary reading. native word» (authors G. M. Grekhneva, K. E. Korepova) is focused on familiarizing children with the origins of their native culture and on learning the language as the most important component of this culture.
The program corresponds to the subject of study in the title. The word appears in it as 1) a means of everyday communication (speech), 2) as a specially designed statement (a work of art), and 3) as part of the cultural heritage of the people, passed down from generation to generation. In this regard, the program highlights the following sections: reading technique, work with a literary text, speech, aesthetic and creative development of children.
Goals course:
Development and improvement of reading skills.
Getting children an initial literary education.
The study of the native language as the most important phenomenon of national culture.
Active speech development of the student.
Formation of elements of historical approach to literature.
Expansion of knowledge and ideas of schoolchildren about a person and the world around.
Development of creative abilities of students.
Foundation programs - samples of folklore literary works that make up the reading circle of a younger student: game folklore and children's literature, folk tales, landscape lyrics by Russian poets, moralizing stories and stories about animals. genre-thematic principle the arrangement of the material provides for a variety of emotional impressions and event series and focuses on acquaintance 1) with the semantic and poetic possibilities of the word (language), 2) with folk rituals, holidays and customs (folklore), 3) with moral norms of behavior in the "big" and "small" world.
From a methodological point of view, the textbooks are focused on the ideas of developmental education and the pedagogy of cooperation.
In the textbooks "Native Word" implemented combination of genre and thematic principles of the arrangement of text material by sections. The arrangement of texts within sections follows the principle of purposeful associations: the transition from one work to another occurs according to the similarity of features (theme, character, genre, etc.). Logical construction of the material textbooks contributes to the formation of systemic ideas about reality and literature, develops associative thinking of schoolchildren. textbooks take into account entertaining principle
The literary reading program includes: 1) program content, 2) reading technique, 3) work with a literary text; 4) learning the native language while studying the text; 5) speech development, 6) aesthetic development, 7) expansion of schoolchildren's knowledge about the world around them.
Program author "Literary reading» O.V. Kubasova believes that literature is one of the most powerful means of familiarizing children with universal values and shaping their worldview. Hence follows the leading role of reading lessons in the system of primary education. In order for the book to become a friend and mentor for children, it is necessary to arouse their interest in reading, as well as help students master the book as a tool of knowledge. Based on this, the goal of teaching reading in primary grades is to form a "talented reader" (S. Marshak), i.e. reader who adequately, fully and creatively comprehends literary heritage humanity .
The program is characterized by an integrated approach to the implementation of the following tasks learning to read.
2. Improving reading skills: consciousness, correctness, fluency, expressiveness (The technical basis of the reading process)
3. Formation of the ability to fully perceive literary text(Content side of reading)
4. Assimilation various ways creative interpretation of a literary text
5. Teaching practical skills of text transformation: determining the main and secondary, finding key words; highlighting semantic parts, etc. (General educational skills of working with text, allowing to process and assimilate cognitive information)
6. Enriching the reader's experience through the accumulation and systematization of literary impressions, diverse in emotional coloring, themes, species and genre affiliation on this basis, the practical development of elementary literary concepts(Fundamentals of literary development).
7. Mastering by children the ability to use the means of non-textual information (cover, title page, etc.), which allows them to navigate in it.
Literary education of junior schoolchildren occupies a special position in the program. Work on the attitude towards reading as a creative process of communication with the author, and towards literature as the art of the word, begins already from grade I.
The Literary Reading program provides for the organization of work not only with the texts of literary works, but also with books in the unity of their textual and non-textual information. So, for example, already in the 2nd grade, all children begin to learn the elementary skills of working with a book (orient themselves in one book and in a group of books by cover, title page, table of contents or content).
This program does not lose sight of the problem of the formation of general educational skills. So the program and the textbook for grade 2 include the section "Plan and retelling." In grades 3 and 4, it is planned to work on such general educational skills as determining the main content, recognizing new information, highlighting incomprehensible words and expressions and finding out their meaning, drawing up a plan, the ability to retell what has been read in different ways, etc.
In addition to all of the above, the methodological apparatus of textbooks is aimed at improving the perception of works of art (primarily at working on recreating imagination), as well as at developing the creative abilities of children.
Program "Literary reading" grades 1-4 (authors L.A. Efrosinina and M.I. Omorokova) aims to help the child become a reader; by reading the work and its elemental analysis, to convey to students the rich world of domestic and foreign literature and, thus, enrich their reading experience.
From year to year, children's interest in reading, in classical children's literature, and in poetry decreases. The reasons for the low interest of schoolchildren in reading activities, according to L.A. Efrosinina, are:
1) strengthening the influence of the media;
2) in the first school years, full-fledged communication with books is disrupted: adult reading to a child is reduced, and listening to literature pursues only narrowly didactic goals. Thus, a contradiction is created between the child's desire to listen to works, to communicate with the book, and the unwillingness of adults to maintain this interest at a time when the child himself cannot yet read.
L.A. Efrosinina proposes to conduct special listening lessons in the primary grades. The purpose of such lessons is to teach the perception of a literary text. Artistic perception- this is the ability not only to listen to the work, but also to hear what the author wanted to say; is not only the ability to track changes in storyline, but also the opportunity to see and understand the subtext, the relationship of the characters, the attitude of the author towards them.
From this follow the following didactic tasks of listening lessons:
Development of the ability to emotionally respond to the events described by the author; nurture a sense of belonging and empathy;
Formation of understanding of the topic, the main idea of the work, its structure and language means;
The development of orientation in the genres of literature.
It is advisable to use listening lessons for the formation of reading skills, orientation in the "structure" of the book, the formation of skills in working in the library, etc.
Listening lessons are held 1-2 times a week. In the lessons, you can use the reader "Literature for the first grader" (author-compiler L.A. Efrosinina) or pick up works to your own taste.
At the lessons of literary reading, it is desirable to develop the skill of reading in the process of analyzing a work from the development of a loud speech form (reading aloud) to reading “to oneself”. Mastering reading in the first year of study involves 1) the formation of holistic synthetic reading techniques at the word level (reading in whole words); 2) intonation combining words into phrases and sentences, 3) increasing the speed of reading in the second year of study and the gradual introduction of reading “to oneself”.
The formation of reading skills depends on the following factors:
From the level of mental and speech development of the child,
From the time you started reading
From mental state child.
These factors must be taken into account and different groups students feasible requirements, organizing individual work with children. For this purpose, in combination teaching materials multi-level tasks and texts are offered.
Program "Literature as a subject of the aesthetic cycle" (G.N. Kudina and Z.N. Novlyanskaya) is built on the idea of a detailed dialogue between the author and the reader. For such a dialogue to take place, the reader must be able to solve two important tasks for himself: 1) understand what is depicted in the work, as close as possible to how the author understood; 2) include the piece in your experience. To solve these problems, the reader needs to know the theory, those laws of the artistic form, according to which the work is created. The program of G.N. Kudina and Z.N. Novlyanskaya attracts attention little reader to the art form begins with building structural schemes of the work of small folklore genres - counting rhymes, nursery rhymes, tongue twisters, riddles, etc.
In the introduction to the methodological developments for this program, the authors write that the new subject school course is described through the initial relationship "author - artistic text- the reader", and the development of this relationship can be represented "as a continuous process of practical literary activity the schoolchildren themselves, sometimes in the position of "author", then in the position of "reader"
The authors of the program believe that "children's artistic creativity the child himself needs for the development of his imagination, emotional and aesthetic sphere, mastery of speech as a means of conveying thoughts, feelings, the inner world of a person. The program emphasizes that the actual writing experience enriches the reader with an understanding of the author's tasks and intentions, and “highlights” the reading process for him in a different way. Creative activity in the position of "author" begins with observations of reality, which are consolidated in studies created collectively, continues with observations of literary texts of writers and is realized in the individual work of each child to create a text.
Thus, the analysis of existing programs indicates the following trends in primary reading education:
1) attention is being paid to the literary education of the younger schoolchild, to the artistic and creative development of the child's personality;
2) there is an implementation of complex learning tasks (learning the skill of reading, speech development, initial literary education and development, development of children's creative activity in connection with reading books, etc.).
Tests and assignments for lecture No. 2.
Analysis of modern reading and literature programs
1. In the education system, three contradictions:
A) between the need for creative development of the individual and the existing system of authoritarian education and upbringing;
B) between the need for new technologies and existing methodological developments for teachers;
C) between the need for the development of thinking and the existing system of education;
D) between the need to introduce new subjects and subjects limited by the curriculum.
11. Program " Reading and elementary literary education"(authors R.N. Buneev, E.V. Buneeva) is built taking into account the principles: A) artistic and aesthetic, B) monographic principle, C) the principle of a holistic perception of a work of art, D) the development of speech and thinking, E) literary criticism, F ) the logical construction of the textbook material, G) the principle of genre diversity, 3) the principle of updating the topics of reading, I) the principle of the optimal ratio of works of children's literature and works from "adult literature" included in the circle of children's reading, J) the traditional thematic principle.
111. Analysis of the programs shows the following trends in primary reading instruction:
A) attention is being paid to the literary education of younger students,
B) increased attention to the artistic and creative development of the child's personality;
C) there is an implementation of complex learning tasks.
It is legitimate to single out two sides in perceiving activity. When mastering a literary work, a lively and unsophisticated, non-analytical, holistic response to it is inalienable, first of all. At the same time, the reader seeks to be aware of the impressions received, to think about what he has read, to understand the reasons for the emotions he experienced. This is a secondary, but also very important facet of the perception of a work of art.
The immediate impulses and mind of the reader correlate with the creative will of the author of the work is very difficult. Here there is both the dependence of the perceiving subject on the artist-creator, and the independence of the first in relation to the second. Discussing the problem of "reader - author", scientists express opinions in different directions, sometimes even polar to one another. They either absolutize the reader's initiative, or, on the contrary, speak of the obedience of the reader to the author as some kind of indisputable norm for the perception of literature.
The reader can be directly present in the work, being specified and localized in its text. Authors sometimes reflect on their readers, and also have conversations with them, reproducing their thoughts and words. In this regard, it is legitimate to talk about the image of the reader as one of the facets of artistic "objectivity". Another, even more significant, universal form of artistic refraction of the perceiving subject is the latent presence in the integrity of the work of its imaginary reader, more precisely, the “concept of the addressee”. The reader-addressee can be both a specific person (Pushkin's friendly messages), and the public contemporary to the author (A.N. Ostrovsky's numerous judgments about the democratic spectator), and some distant "providential" reader, whom O.E. Mandelstam in the article "About the interlocutor".
Human perception of a work of art is carried out within the framework of artistic communication. A person acts both as a consumer of artistic products, and, in in a certain sense as an accomplice in its creation. A person's perception of a work of art has an open character, because includes the life experience of the subject, his aesthetic taste and value orientations. Aesthetic perception is not a simple reproduction of a work of art in the mind. This is a complex process of complicity and co-creation of the perceiving subject.
The sound nature of music. sound and intonation. Music as an intonation process. Principles of organization of sounds: ladotonality, melody, rhythm, harmony. Music warehouse. Types of musical warehouses (monodic, heterophonic, polyphonic, homophonic-harmonic).
Music deals with sounds. Sound is created by vibrations of a body, such as a string. Sound has the following properties:
Height is the frequency of oscillation.
Timbre - the presence of overtones (overtones), depends on the sound source.
Duration - the duration of the sound.
Loudness - the amplitude of the oscillation.
Musical sounds form a musical system. The sounds used in music are called tones. The most important property of sound in music is pitch, the more frequent the vibration, the higher the sound. The pitch (tone) is measured in hertz (Hz) and determines the tone.
Our hearing is able to distinguish musical and noise sounds. Noise sounds do not have an exact pitch, such as creaking, thunder, rustling, train wheels, etc., so they are not used in music.
Intonation in music is
1) a musical-theoretical and aesthetic concept that has several interrelated meanings. Intonation in the broadest sense is the pitch organization of musical sounds (tones) in their sequence (compare with temporal organization - rhythm). Musical intonation differs from speech by the fixedness of sounds in height and their subordination to the mode system.
2) Under intonation is also understood the manner (“warehouse”, “system”) of a musical statement, which determines its expressive (determined by the feelings expressed in music), syntactic (affirmative, interrogative, etc.), characteristic (national, social, etc.) etc.) and genre (song intonation, ariose, recitative, etc.) meanings.
The expressiveness of musical intonation is based on associations with other sounds, primarily with speech, conditioned by the auditory experience of people, and some psycho-physiological prerequisites. Intonation in the narrow sense is the smallest conjugation of tones in a musical statement, which has a relatively independent expressive meaning, a semantic cell (unit) in music. Usually such intonation consists of 2‒3, sometimes of one sound. Most often it is a particle of a melody, a melody, although its expressiveness is influenced by rhythm, harmony, and timbre.
Rhythm
musical rhythm is the most naturalistic of all the foundations of music. It was with simple rhythms percussion on primitive musical instruments that the history of music once began. And it is the rhythm, according to many, that is fundamental in jazz. Rhythm can be called a system of sounds built in temporary space and perceived regardless of their pitch, timbre and loudness.
Melody- a melodious succession of sounds belonging to some scale or mode. Non-distant modulations are allowed in the melody, but the predominance of the main mode is necessary. In addition, the melody must have a symmetrical mood and a certain rhythm. A melody, as a musical thought, must be completed tonally and rhythmically, that is, it must have a cadence at the end. The melody, which does not consist of uniform drawn-out notes, but of notes of different duration, contains a motive, that is, a well-known rhythmic figure that is repeated in its original or modified form and makes up the pattern of the melody.
The term " harmony"in music includes a number of meanings:
Pleasant to the ear coherence of sounds (musical and aesthetic concept: the same as “euphony”;
Combining sounds into consonances and their natural succession (compositional and technical concept);
Harmony as a musical and artistic means,
Harmony is also called a scientific and educational-practical discipline that studies the pitch organization of music, consonances and their connections.
Ladotonality- major or minor scale, stated in a certain key. Instead of the exact definition of “tonality”, a shorter one has become entrenched in everyday life - tonality.
Stock in music - the principle of adding voices and/or consonances, refereed by their musical-logical and technical-compositional function.
monodic; Monody is a musical warehouse, the main textural feature of which is monophony (singing or performing on musical instrument, in polyphonic form - with duplications in an octave or unison).
heterophonic; Heterophony is a warehouse of polyphony; the essence of heterophony boils down to the fact that when the same melody is performed by several voices or instruments in one or several voices, from time to time there is an offshoot from the main tune. These digressions may be determined by the peculiarities of the technical capabilities of voices and instruments, but they may also be a direct manifestation of musical creativity. Usually, the implementation of heterophony is a fusion of the individual creativity of the performers and elements fixed by tradition. To heterophony belongs, in particular, the subvocal type of polyphony
Polyphonic; Polyphony is a warehouse of polyphonic music, characterized by the simultaneous sounding, development and interaction of several voices (melodic lines, melodies in the broad sense), equal in terms of compositional and technical (equal participants in the polyphonic texture) and musical logical (equal carriers of "musical thought") . Warehouses opposite to polyphony are monody and homophony (“homophone-harmonic warehouse”). The word "polyphony" also refers to the musical-theoretical discipline that studies polyphonic compositions (formerly "counterpoint").
Homophonic-harmonic. Homophony is a warehouse of polyphony inherent in European composer music in the 17th–19th centuries. Since the 17th century - warehouse of polyphony, in which three layers of texture different in meaning are distinguished: melody (tessiturno, as well as, as a rule, a timbre-separated layer of texture, carrying the “musical thought” of the whole), accompaniment (can be structured in a variety of ways, originally chordal) and bass. In domestic musical science, the homophonic warehouse was also previously called "homophonic-harmonic", which is an obvious pleonasm, since harmony as a category of music is not logically opposed to polyphony.
To this list is sometimes added a bourdon warehouse (or bourdon texture), which occupies an intermediate position between monody and polyphony.
Bourdon is an ambiguous musical term. The main meaning is a continuously stretching (usually low) tone or musical interval, against which the melody unfolds. Nowadays, the term drone is also used in relation to this concept.
19. The concept of "musical image". Musical thematics as a carrier of musical images. Thematic and non-thematic material. Techniques for the development of thematic material: repetition, variation, development, transformation, contrast.
musical image is the result of all possible connections musical thinking as such (contradictory unity of intonation and logic) with all aspects of theoretical and practical human activity.
Like any artistic image in general, musical image reflects the laws of reality in typifying it, generalized and, at the same time, sensually specific forms.
Image - highest category music (as, indeed, any other art). If, while listening to music, we catch melodies, harmonies, rhythms, etc., comprehend even a large number of details of the musical fabric, fix musical themes, but do not perceive the musical image, then this music passed us by in the most essential and made an impression rather " technological" than artistic. Only figurative influence, figurative perception justify the existence of art, in particular music. In the absence of images, music turns into a combination of combined sounds.
Thematism in music- the use of the same theme in an extensive musical composition, and the theme is carried out not only in one, but in many parts of the composition, in a modified or basic form. For example, in Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, the main theme of the last movement of the symphony appears in the previous movements, but in an incomplete and imperfect form; in Schumann's fourth symphony in d-moll, the theme of the introduction is in the third part of the symphony, the second theme of the romance is in the scherzo. An example of a very successful T. is the first piano concert List. T. exists not only in instrumental music, but also in opera. T. - the technique is far from new: it is already found in Gretry's opera "Richard the Lionheart", where the theme of Richard episodically runs through the entire opera. Many, however, attribute it to Wagner, in whom the T. system is brought to an extreme degree. T. in the opera was used and is currently used by many composers, but without a preconceived complex thematic system. T. is found in the operas of Glinka, Serov, Tchaikovsky, Meyerbeer, Gounod and many others. others
Repetition is one of the most essential methods of creation in music. Just as in architecture every capital of a column, every rosette, and in the end the whole artistic whole of a cathedral is created from the development of a limited number of motifs, so in music every theme, department of composition, and finally a whole piece is created by means of p-tion and development a few small motives (q.v.). This item, of course, is not a simple reproduction, as is often the case in architecture, where some eighth or fourth part of the rosette or capital is completely identical to the same other part and where dozens of columns, turrets, windows, etc. are exactly the same in size ; in music, identity is usually replaced by a more or less noticeable similarity and imitation (imitation). In view of the fact that musical forms are formed under the simultaneous influence of several aesthetic principles, the composition can also be very diverse. A melodic-rhythmic motive can be reproduced quite accurately, but, thanks to the harmony that accompanies it, a different harmonic meaning can be obtained; it can be repeated again exactly, but with a different accentuation (especially if easy and hard times are moved in it); it may also be repeated in another step, and so on. The latter technique is the most common; both artistic forms of the canon and fugue (see), and amateurish craft rosalia (see) owe their origin to him. One of the most important types of p-ing in music is imitation (see).
Variations("changes") are called all kinds of modifications (metamorphoses) of any relief theme, the latter in the most daring c. must remain recognizable. Usually in. changes only one element, and in any case only a few elements of the theme, i.e. time signature, or rhythm, or harmony, or melody. The old Doubles (q.v.) left in all these respects the basic outlines of the theme untouched and only furnished it with all sorts of embellishments and intensified figurations (eg Handel's "Harmonious blacksmith"). On the contrary, the modern century, which we find in a fully developed form in Haydn and Mozart, transfers the theme from major to minor, from 2⁄4 or 4⁄4 to 3⁄4, punctuates or syncopates rhythms, introduces some special (not belonging to the theme) motive, contrasts the theme with another beautiful melody, expands the volume of the melody by introducing new growths or narrows it, etc. For c. there is nothing forbidden, provided that one way or another the connection with the theme is preserved. Whereas the old Doubles always kept to the same key, nowadays contrasting keys are willingly set against each other in a variational work. Samples in. can serve: from the numerous Beethoven - F-dur-nye and from the piano sonata As-dur; B-dur-nye Schubert; "Variations serieuses" by Mendelssohn and v. for two fp. Saint-Saens ("on a theme of Beethoven"). The oldest form of a fairly free variational style is the dance suite (see) whose origin dates back to the 16th century (see Suite). Strict c. on the melody of the songs introduced perhaps for the first time Sal. Rossi (1623). Form in. since the time of Glinka, it has also been loved by Russian composers; by the way, in the opera, and the theme is usually repeated unchanged in the vocal parts, and in. are entrusted to the orchestra (for example, Finn's story or the Persian song in Rusl. and Ludm.).
Development - Development is a process aimed at changing material and spiritual objects in order to improve them. Change of matter and consciousness, their universal property, the universal principle of explaining the history of nature, society and knowledge.
transformation- A fundamental change in smth.
Contrast - A sharp contrast.
Music as a symbol of culture. The concept of "musical vocabulary of the era". Elements musical language as expressive means of music. Classification of means of musical expression. Melody and harmony. Warehouse and invoice. Metrorhythm. Semantics musical form. The organization of the musical fabric and its elements as a process of creating an artistic text.
The nature of music is dual, which determines the particular complexity of its analysis. On the one hand, music acts as a product of culture, history, tradition, collective wisdom, a powerful factor social interactions, i.e. a phenomenon that exists objectively and involves an objective approach. But, on the other hand, this gigantic object exists only because it feeds on experience, grows out of experience, which is always deeply intimate, individual, subjective.
The concept of "musical vocabulary of the era"– a dictionary of musical terms corresponding to different eras
Elements of musical language: At the same time, the element of the musical language itself, its expressive possibilities, are a “product” of one or another historical epoch. In this regard, the comprehension of the artistic and expressive meanings of the elements of the musical language has several levels.
The first level is the level of the musical language of the era, where musical and linguistic formations exist as separate expressive means and are recognized in their most general meaning as invariants.
The second level is a specific piece of music; the meaning of the element here is realized in a complex of other means and its role in the creation of artistic meaning is comprehended.
The third level is associated with obtaining the results of studying this particular formation in a work, its musical and speech functioning. Here the cultural and historical transformation of this element is comprehended.
Classification of means of musical expression. Music - (from the Greek musike - lit. - the art of muses), a type of art in which the means of embodying artistic images are organized in a certain way. musical sounds. The main elements and expressive means of music are mode, rhythm, meter, tempo, loud dynamics, timbre, melody, harmony, polyphony, instrumentation. Music is recorded in musical notation and realized in the process of performance.
Melody Melody (ancient Greek μελῳδία - chant lyric poetry, from μέλος - melody, and ᾠδή - singing, chanting) - one (in monody only) voice of musical texture, which is interpreted in music theory and is directly perceived by the ear as a compositional-technical and modal whole. Less commonly, the word "melody" is also used to denote any voice of a polyphonic texture (the "horizontal" dimension of music), that is, regardless of the compositional-technical and modal comprehension of a polyphonic whole. In a homophonic warehouse (for example, in the music of the Viennese classics), the melody is opposed to accompaniment and bass. This last understanding of melody dominates the elementary (school) theory of music to this day.
Harmony. Harmony (ancient Greek ἁρμονία - connection, order; system, harmony; coherence, proportionality, harmony) - a complex of concepts of music theory. Harmonious is called (including in everyday speech) a coherence of sounds pleasant to the ear and logically comprehended by the mind (musical and aesthetic concept). In a scientific perspective, this idea leads to a compositional and technical understanding of harmony as a combination of sounds into consonances and their regular sequence. Harmony as a scientific and educational-practical discipline studies the pitch organization of music.
Warehouse and invoice. Warehouse (German: Tonsatz, French: écriture, English: texture) in music is the principle of adding voices and/or harmonies, referred to by their musical-logical and technical-compositional function.
Domestic musical science traditionally distinguishes 4 warehouses:
19. monodic;
20. heterophonic;
21. polyphonic;
22. homophonic-harmonic.
To this list is sometimes added a bourdon warehouse (or bourdon invoice), which occupies an intermediate position between
Warehouse and invoice. In musicological literature, the concept of warehouse is often confused with the concept of texture, and in some foreign language traditions (in particular, English ones) and is equated with it. In another (more common) tradition, warehouse and texture are correlated as categories of genus and species. For example, an accompaniment (as a functional layer) in a homophonic-harmonic warehouse can be performed in the form of a chord or figurative (for example, arpeggiated) texture; a polyphonic piece can be sustained in a homorhythmic or imitation texture, etc.
Metrorhythm. Metrorhythm (from the Greek metron - measure and rytmos - rhythm) - Rhythm (Greek rytmos, from reo - flow) - the perceived form of the flow of any processes in time. The variety of manifestations of R. in decomp. types and styles of art (not only temporal, but also spatial), as well as outside the arts. spheres (R. speech, walking, labor processes etc.) gave rise to many often contradictory definitions of R. (which deprives this word of terminological clarity). Among them, three loosely demarcated groups can be identified.
In the broadest sense, R. is the temporal structure of any perceived processes, one of three (along with melody and harmony) DOS. elements of music, distributing in relation to time (according to P. I. Tchaikovsky) melodic. and harmonic. combinations. R. form accents, pauses, division into segments (rhythmic units of different levels up to individual sounds), their grouping, ratios in duration, etc.; in a narrower sense - a sequence of durations of sounds, abstracted from their height (rhythmic pattern, in contrast to melodic).
Semantics of musical form. - First of all, the construction of musical semantics involves two essentially different problems: Identification in musical texts of material units that are carriers of meaning - designators of the musical language; systematic description of these units; ways of their variation (paradigmatics), rules of connection in the text (syntagmatics), derivation. Formation of rules for the interpretation of musical signs.
The hallmarks of these images are simplicity and standardization. The stereotypes that have developed in the minds simplify the processes of reader's perception, forming stable attitudes in the selection and consumption of information products. This is facilitated by well-established headings (“Portrait of a Contemporary”, “Hero of Our Time”, “A Man in Perspective”, “Knock on Someone else’s Door”, “Breakfast on the Grass”, “A Common Case”, “On the Street and at Home”, “I - - an eyewitness", "Direct speech", etc.), thematic pages, headings, etc., which help the reader find the material that meets his needs more easily. Since the choice specific edition and text for review, the communicative phase begins. At this stage, a person is included in the process of reading, which, as L.I. Belyaev, is able to “satisfy various needs: cognitive, aesthetic, moral and others. But their satisfaction does not occur in a direct way, but on the basis of the processing of symbolic, verbal information, the source of which is the works of the press ”(Belyayeva L. I. On the question of the typology of readers // Problems of sociology and psychology of reading. M., 1975. P. 150 .). Theorists consider reading as one of the types of cognitive and communicative activity. For example, V. A. Borodina believes that "the essence of reading lies in the active, purposeful transformation and subordination of the content of the text to the various needs of the social subject." Referring to various theoretical concepts, this author identifies the following types of reader contacts with the text: completeness of reading, sequence of reading sections of the text; spending time reading. At the same time, external behavioral manifestations of the interaction of the reader with the text and internal mechanisms of selectivity of perception, understanding and assimilation of information are noted (Borodina V. A. Reading activity: theoretical aspect//Psychology of reading and problems of typology of readers. L., 1984. S. 9, 10.). According to psychologists, “perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating a copy of it” (Zinchenko T. P. Sensations // General psychology/ Ed. A. V. Petrovsky. M., 1986. S. 274.). Perception can be both arbitrary and selective. In the first case, a person's attention may be scattered. In the second, a person approaches the reading of an essay with clearly conscious attitudes, for example, he can correlate the author's position with his own. If they do not agree on something, the reader can immediately switch attention to another object. And vice versa, information corresponding to the recipient's attitudes can have a direct impact on a person's consciousness. Considering this phenomenon, L. Wojtasik once wrote that “the selectivity of perception consists in a special perception of the content of a work that corresponds to a person’s attitudes. The distributed content, which is contrary to the recipient's attitudes, is transformed in his perception so that it corresponds to certain expectations, attitudes and moods. In addition, the selectivity of reader attention “consists in the fact that the recipient tends to select those ... messages that are consistent with his views, to avoid (consciously or unconsciously) those messages that spread the opposite content, such a selective attitude, as a rule, leads to the strengthening of the already formed attitudes of the individual to the correctness of his political and other convictions ”(Voytasik L. Psychology of political propaganda. M., 1981. P. 114, 113.). The perception of textual information is directly related to the assimilation of messages. According to S.L. Rubinshtein, any text is only a condition of mental activity; what is objectively contained in the text can also acquire a subjective form of existence in the reader's head. This subjective form of existence is the result of the reader's own mental activity (Quoted from: Problems of Sociology and Psychology of Reading. M., 1975. P. 164.).
In the process of reading, the reader determines the goals and objectives of the message; correlates new information with previously learned; gives his interpretation of the facts presented in the text; argues or agrees with the position of the author; looking for connections between various facts, events and objects, trying to recreate the image of the reality described by the journalist. It has long been known that the reader, referring to a specific text, organizes his mental activity in an appropriate way, aimed at mastering and understanding a certain sign system. Due to the fact that any text is divided into separate elements, a person can compare their various parts, combine various facts in his own way, look for internal connections between them, thereby deepening his understanding of the text. Based on the characteristics of the reader's reading of the text, a journalist should not create constructions that are unfavorable for the reader's perception. Therefore, it is desirable that the material be clearly structured, that all the facts in it be presented in a strict logical relationship, so that the author does not abuse special terms and foreign expressions in his material. In addition, it is necessary that the created image is not only adequately perceived, but also understood. What is required for this? Practitioners usually advise: - when preparing a journalistic work, one should strive for logical harmony and clarity of expression of thoughts; -- the information contained in the text should be as detailed and exhaustive as possible; - it is very important that all ambiguous expressions and sentences are excluded from the text, and the expected objections and doubts are warned with the help of a certain argumentation; -- if detailed descriptions are used in the text, it is desirable that they end with generalizing conclusions. All these measures are aimed at easier assimilation of information by a person, regardless of his educational level. What opinions, assessments and conclusions were developed by the audience in the process of reading the essay can be found out in the post-communicative phase. It is at this stage that the reader can join in the exchange of opinions not only at the interpersonal level, but also get in touch with the journalist. During such contacts with the audience, the author can obtain information about the nature of his relationship with the reader. He can find out what impact his work has had, what the reader thinks about the material, whether he shares the author's position, etc. These, in our opinion, are the main stages of the communicative interaction between the author and the reader, knowledge of which allows you to most effectively establish feedback between them.
The problems of educating schoolchildren as readers, developing their independent reading skills appeared long ago. The study of the literature on the topic of the study led to the conclusion that until the nineteenth century. the methodology of reading (classroom and extracurricular) as a branch of pedagogical science has not yet been formed. However, as G. Pidluzhnaya notes, already in the 11th century. there were preconditions for the emergence of a reading technique: in the sights of Kievan Rus we find evidence of the significant interest of our predecessors in the study of literature. Kyiv Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich during his reign (978-1015) opened special workshops where books were copied, and later created schools for children of the Kyiv nobility. Teaching at the school of that time required the creation of textbooks and the search for forms, means and techniques of "book learning". This is how the first developments in poetics and stylistics appeared.
K. D. Ushinsky made a significant contribution to the development of a scientifically based method of reading in the middle of the 19th century. With all the individual differences in the methodological views of scientists, major achievements practices became the foundations of the method of explanatory reading and the assertion of the need to analyze a work of art as the basis for learning and spiritual development of the individual. In addition, scientists paid great attention to the development of speech and thinking of schoolchildren, expressive reading as a means of activating reader interests, as well as family reading.
As N. N. Svetlovskaya notes, the analysis of scientific, methodological, educational and fiction literature of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. allows us to conclude that the problems of the educational influence of the literary word on the personality of the student reader acquired at that time not only a pedagogical, but also a social character: they worried not only domestic scientists, methodologists, teachers, but also progressive writers and public figures. Considering reading as an important means of activating cognitive activity students and the source of their spiritual development, I. Franko, L. Ukrainka, E. Pchelka, S. Vasylchenko, Kh. content of textbooks for reading; criticized the simplistic methods of teaching literature at school; attached importance independent communication of schoolchildren with a book; cared about the publication of highly artistic works for children.
In the 1950s and 1960s, after a certain decrease in interest in the problems of children's reading, predetermined by objective reasons (the years of the war and post-war devastation), the development of methodological thought continued in the direction of determining ways to increase the educational value of classroom and extracurricular reading in their relationship. Continuing the best traditions of the past, well-known scientists and methodologists S. Rezodubov, G. Kanonikin, N. Shcherbakov, E. Adamovich, F. Kostenko, V. Sukhomlinsky noted in their writings that reading should serve as a means of educational influence on students, expand and deepen their horizons, enrich the knowledge, moral and emotional experience of schoolchildren. Among the tasks of reading lessons, scientists highlighted the need to develop reading skills.
The growth of interest in the problems of educating school readers in the 60s is also confirmed by the appearance of scientific publications that proposed the introduction of special classes - lessons of extracurricular reading. Until that time, although extracurricular reading was listed in the programs for primary classes, the curriculum did not allocate hours for it.
It was envisaged that extracurricular reading should be organized by the class teacher together with the librarian. This was supposed to be facilitated by a system of extracurricular activities: literary matinees, games, quizzes, etc. Over time, the concern of the pedagogical community, caused by a decrease in children's interest in books, forced them to look for new ways to guide extracurricular reading.
But how to interest a child in a book? How to teach a child to love a book? After all, modern children do not like to read, they read little and reluctantly. But the quality of the entire learning process depends on their ability to read in the future. Without learning to read well, a child will not be able to read a math problem, prepare an essay or a message on any topic, and for a child who is not able to read, it will be an impossible task at all. As practice shows, if a child does not read well enough, his literacy leaves much to be desired, oral speech is not sufficiently developed. Therefore, to teach a child to read, to use a book as a source of knowledge and information, to introduce students to the world of books and thereby contribute to the development of independent reading activity is the main task of a primary school teacher. To make it clear to students that reading is the spiritual food of every educated person. And with the rapid intrusion into our lives of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, this task has become more relevant than ever.
For many years, pedagogy and psychology have been looking for effective ways to familiarize younger students with literature and the art of the word. This is directly involved in the methodology of literary education in elementary school. The technique is not frozen rules and canons. This is a living process in which it is impossible to create models of the child's activity and thinking in the lesson, but can only assume them. Therefore, work with a work of art cannot be subject to a single scheme. At the same time, the task of the teacher is not to invent the latest methods and techniques of work in the literary reading lesson, but to develop a general methodological approach aimed at shaping and educating the child's personality, familiarizing him with the art of the word and the basics of reading activity. . In a modern elementary school, two types of reading lessons are distinguished: a lesson in literary reading and a lesson in reader independence, the so-called out-of-class reading. Literary reading is closely related to the lessons of extracurricular reading. Extracurricular reading in elementary school is a mandatory part of preparing children for independent reading.
The purpose of extracurricular reading is to acquaint students with children's literature, which is part of the reading circle of a modern primary school student, to form an interest in the book, skills and abilities to work with it, to cultivate a positive attitude towards independent reading. The main form of work with children's books are extracurricular reading lessons.
On the one hand, these are relatively free lessons that develop reading interests, children's horizons, their aesthetic feelings, perception of artistic images, their imagination and creativity.
On the other hand, in these lessons certain program requirements are fulfilled, the skills and abilities necessary for an active reader are formed.
As O. Dzhezheley points out, Extracurricular reading lessons should be exciting, become book holidays, children are looking forward to them, preparing for them. Since the lessons of extracurricular reading are designed to develop schoolchildren, to educate them in activity, the structure of the lessons is extremely diverse, not subject to any scheme. Each lesson is the creativity of the teacher and students, and the more variety, the more liveliness and flexibility that can be achieved in these lessons, the more success the teacher and his class achieve.
But extra-curricular reading lessons are held relatively rarely, so the question of their system, their planning for the long term, is very important. Usually, extracurricular reading lessons are recommended to be planned for half a year or for the whole year. Long-term planning of lessons makes it possible to provide for their diversity, sequence, connection between them, as well as the distribution of topics in accordance with the tasks of raising and developing children, seasonal interests of students and other factors.
T. Neborskaya offers the following structure for an extracurricular reading lesson in the 1st grade.
1. Preparing students for the perception of the work (2 min). Reviewing a book.
2. Expressive reading by the teacher and students' perception of it by ear (5-7 minutes)
3. Group discussion read (7-10 min). Conversations, questions, illustrations, games, sketches are used.
4. Examination of books: cover, title, author's name, illustrations inside the book. The cover should be as simple as possible, without unnecessary information.
For the lesson you need:
1. Special psychological attitude.
2. You can not spend on different days and increase or decrease the number of meetings of students with the book and lengthen these classes.
3. First-graders are not ready for a detailed analysis of what they have read. You need to learn to listen and reflect on what you read.
4. Specially consider books.
In order to arouse children's interest in reading books, it is necessary to follow the methodological principles for selecting books recommended for children.
First, the selection of books should be guided by educational goals.
Secondly, genre and thematic diversity is necessary: prose and poetry; fiction and popular science literature; books about today and about the past; works of classical writers and contemporary authors; folklore - fairy tales, riddles; book and magazine, newspaper, works of Russian, Ukrainian authors and translations…
Thirdly, accounting age features children, the principle of accessibility. So, in the 1st grade, they recommend stories, fairy tales, poems on such topics accessible to children as the Motherland, work, people's lives, animals and plants. Small-sized children's books (well illustrated, with large print) by Russian and Belarusian (translated into Russian) writers.
Expanding the reader's horizons through historical novels and stories, autobiographical, documentary, essay literature, adventure children's books, books about culture and art.
The fourth principle of selecting books for children is the principle of individual interest, the student's independence in choosing a book.
Following these principles will increase interest in reading, in the book, and this, in turn, will expand the horizons of children.
Lists of recommended literature are posted in the classroom, they are periodically updated and supplemented. The teacher organizes exhibitions of book novelties, books are promoted in direct communication with students: in the speeches of the librarian in the classroom, in individual conversations between the teacher and the children.
Individual help and control. Conversations with students about the book that he is reading or has read, exchanging opinions, comparing a book with a movie, discussing illustrations, viewing student records about books read, visiting a student at home and getting to know his home library, talking with parents about a student reading.
Thus, in the primary grades, a system is being formed for organizing independent reading of schoolchildren, a system for educating them as active readers, lovers of literature. This system is characterized not so much by a program of knowledge as by a program of skills and orientation in the world of books. It is subordinated to the task of instilling the need to read books, newspapers and magazines, since in modern society each person should be prepared for self-education, for independent “acquisition of knowledge”, for updating their knowledge.
What do extra-curricular reading lessons in the first grade oblige us to do? In the classroom, children with different levels of life experience and readiness for reading, that is, readers and beginners. Reading children most often come from a family where it has become a tradition for parents and children to read books aloud, to discuss and experience together. At home, of course, books are read without any system, so the child's home reading has not yet made him a reader. To fill the gap, extra-curricular reading lessons are called upon. That is why, already during the period of literacy, extracurricular reading is carried out weekly for 15-20 minutes, since it is during this period that interest in children's books is formed among students.
J. Vilmane noted that the main thing in extracurricular work is to organize it skillfully, and in such a way that this work develops cognitive interests students and thereby gave purposefulness to their activities. And M. Kachurin points out that extracurricular work reveals students, they study more relaxed, freer, willingly turn to additional literature on the subject, acquire a taste for independent work with the book.
Consider the concept of "reader's activity" in the works of various authors.
Table 1.1 - The essence of the concept of "reader's activity", proposed by various authors
|
Researcher |
The essence of the views |
|
K. Ushinsky |
Reading activity is the reader's ability to understand an exemplary work and feel it. |
|
N. Rubakin |
Reading activity is a personal property, which is characterized by the presence of the reader's motives that encourage him to turn to books, and the system of knowledge, skills and abilities that give him the opportunity to realize his motives in accordance with social and personal needs with the least effort and time. |
|
N. Svetlovskaya |
Reading activity is a personal property that allows the reader, if necessary, to habitually turn to the world of books for the experience he lacks and, with minimal time and effort, find in this world and “appropriate” the necessary experience at the maximum level available to him or establish that the experience he is interested in not yet described in books |
|
G. Naumchuk |
Reading activity is the reader's ability to use the book as a source of knowledge and information. |
|
O. Dzhezheley |
Reading activity is the ability and desire to invest in reading the “work of the soul”, thinking about the book before reading, perceiving the content, thinking about what has been read when the book is already closed |
|
S. Doroshenko |
Reading activity includes the formation of reading technique, the ability to listen, perceive and comprehend what is read. |
An analysis of the table allows us to conclude that reading activity is a student's personal property, which can be considered the ultimate goal and an objective indicator of the reading activity of younger students. Reading activity is manifested in a steady need to turn to books, in a conscious choice of reading material, in the ability to effectively apply acquired knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of reading.
For individual work, books are selected in a standard design that meets the hygiene standards for independent reading, from 8 to 30 pages, of which students individually, independently (to themselves), at the direction and under the supervision of a teacher, read works of art or scientific and artistic works from 60 to 400 words .
For collective work in the lessons of extracurricular reading in the 1st grade, children's books in a complicated design are selected, from which the teacher reads fairy tales, poems, riddles from 500 to 1500 words aloud to the children.
Thus, we see that the leading place in the complex of reading skills and abilities is occupied by such a component as awareness, understanding that the child is reading. And this is not surprising, because reading is carried out in order to obtain certain information, to learn something new, and finally, to get satisfaction from the reading process itself, from acquaintance with a work of verbal art. That is why texts at the initial stage of learning to read should be short, phrases should be simple, words should be familiar, and the font should be large.
Reading awareness is the reader's understanding of:
the main meaning of the entire content of the text, i.e. reader awareness
words used both literally and figuratively.
The depth of awareness depends on the age requirements and capabilities of the reader, the level of his general development, erudition, life experience and other factors. That is why the same work can be understood and understood differently by any person, regardless of whether it is an adult reader or a child.
L. Yasyukova notes that you must first give the child the opportunity to understand the text, parse it to himself, and only then offer to read it aloud. When a child is immediately forced to read aloud, he has to simultaneously perform two operations at once - voicing the text and understanding it. And for this, a special distribution of attention is needed, which a first-grader child does not yet have or it is formed rather weakly, so most children voice the texts, that is, “read”, and then they practically cannot repeat what they read. This means that children will not be able to retell the text and answer questions.
At first, while the works are small in volume, strong students may not realize the importance of extra-textual information. Fascinated by the very process of reading the text, they easily memorize it almost verbatim and retell it without difficulty. Children have the illusion of understanding what they read. Weak students have difficulty reading the text, so they may also not be up to the extra-textual information contained in the book. Both those and other children, in the case when the unity of the text and extra-textual information is missed, think about the content of what they read only thanks to the direct questions and tasks of the teacher. They don’t get used to thinking about a book while reading on their own, when the teacher is not around, because without questions and assignments, teachers simply don’t know what they can and should think about when choosing and reading a book, but the ability to think about a book with the help of the book itself it is necessary to teach children no less carefully than all other reading skills and habits.
That is why each structural part of an extracurricular reading lesson in the 1st grade should end with an analysis of the students' ability to use extra-textual information and illustrations for an emotional and full perception of the text of the read work.
For this reason, O. Dzhezheley does not recommend requiring a first grader to read children's books on his own at home, without the supervision of a teacher, while the child is still learning to monitor the quality of his reading, but insists that this quality must be rechecked by all available means.
In the current programs on literary reading, the authors approach the issue of the formation of independent reading activity of younger schoolchildren in different ways.
The program "Classical Primary School" (author O. Dzhezheley) has a special section, which presents a list of skills that students can and should master as an independent reading activity at the end of each period of study. The implementation of this section is carried out on one of the five types of lessons - lessons that provide the ability to independently choose and read books. They are held using special sets of children's books.
The program "School 2100" (R. Buneev, E. Buneeva) provides for the organization of independent home reading for children. The main feature: children read "within the framework of reading books", that is, other stories or poems of the authors of this section, the following chapters from the story. This is how the principle of a holistic perception of a work of art is realized.
A lesson based on home reading materials is held after the completion of work on each section. The choice of works and themes of these lessons is an individual matter of the teacher. At the end of each book for reading is a sample list of books for independent reading.
Thus, the process of formation of independent reading activity of younger students is provided for in each of the above programs, but the forms and methods for achieving this goal are different.
According to O. Dzhezheley, the leading method of accounting is daily monitoring of the reading activity of students, a comprehensive study by the teacher of each child in terms of the dynamics of mastering the requirements of the school curriculum, and analysis of educational activities with children in extracurricular reading lessons.
Between the circle of phenomena denoted by the word reader, and the circle of phenomena denoted by the word author, there is a deep inner connection. It manifests itself, in particular, in the fact that each meaning of the word "author" corresponds to a certain meaning of the word "reader" and vice versa.
First of all, it turns out that when they say "readers", "reader" (Pushkin's readers, Nekrasov's circle of readers), they mean really existing or existing people. In this case, the reader is studied as a socio-historical and cultural-psychological type and can be correlated with a real, biographical author. Literary criticism here comes into contact with historical science, cultural studies and social psychology. A possible approach from the position of the psychology of perception corresponds to the approach from the position of the psychology of creativity to the literary activity of a biographical author.
Actually (purely) literary approach to the reader presupposes the correlation of the reader with the author as the bearer of the concept of the work, a certain view of reality, the expression of which is the entire work. Such an author also presupposes an appropriate reader - not an empirical one, but a conceptual one. The bearer of the concept assumes a reader who will adequately perceive it, for whom it is intended. This reader is not an element of empirical, but of a special, aesthetic reality. It is formed by the work, created, assembled by it. All components, all levels of a literary work take part in this act of creation of the reader. The process of perception of a work by a real, biographical reader is the process of forming the reader as an element of aesthetic reality. The real reader of the work (the author standing behind it and expressing himself in it) “imposes” a certain position.
The author, as the bearer of the concept of the work, does not directly enter into it: he is always mediated - subjectively and extrasubjectively. Naturally, the question arises of what are the functions and what is the specific weight of different ways of expressing the author's consciousness in the formation of a conceptual reader. Let's focus on the subject level.
The reader is combined with the subject of consciousness in a variety of points of view. The direct evaluative point of view is, as we remember, a direct and open correlation of the object with the subject's ideas of consciousness about the norm. These ideas are "imposed" on the reader as obligatory.
The spatial point of view offered by the text forces the reader to see that and only that which the subject of consciousness sees. It determines its position in space, its distance from the object and direction of view. The same - with appropriate changes - can be said about the temporal point of view.
Since the spatial and temporal points of view are particular manifestations of the indirectly evaluative point of view, the forced admission
connection to the subject of consciousness in them means the mandatory adoption of a well-known evaluative position, expressed in the language of spatial and temporal relations.
The dual nature of the speaker in the phraseological point of view also implies the dual nature of the position offered to the reader. On the one hand, the reader is combined with the speaker as a subject of consciousness, taking not only his spatio-temporal, but also evaluative-ideological position. On the other hand, he is given the opportunity to rise above the speaker, distance himself from him and turn him into an object. The more the second possibility is realized, the closer the real reader approaches the reader assumed and postulated by the text, that is, the reader as an element of aesthetic reality.
It follows from the foregoing that the degree of obligatory position (the degree of its “imposition”) offered by the text is different for each of the points of view. The largest is for direct-evaluative, the smallest - for phraseological. Corresponding to the reduction in the mandatory position proposed point of view, the degree of obligation of the position offered by the plot-compositional way of expressing the author's consciousness, that is, the way the parts of the text are arranged, their order and sequence, increases.
Of course, here too, different degrees of compulsion are possible. Without going into a detailed consideration of the issue, we will only say that here a new aspect of the problem associated with the generic differentiation of literature. The belonging of a work to a given literary genus largely influences the postulated type of reader. The nature of this differentiation will become clearer if we remember that literary gender is focused on the predominant use of a certain point of view, supplemented by the appropriate type of plot-compositional organization.
It turns out that to the extent that we remain within the limits of poetics, the reader as a postulated addressee (an ideal perceiving principle) can be comprehended only by analyzing the text at the subjective and plot-compositional levels.
The same way of studying the material remains in force when we are dealing with the reader named in the text. This phenomenon appears before us in several varieties. On the one hand, the reader can act as an object in a direct evaluative point of view. On the other hand, he can act as a subject, having its own text and its objects, and at the same time playing the role of an object in the phraseological point of view (the astute reader in Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?). Of course, other transitional forms are also possible here, but in any case we are faced with the need to resort to the subject-object approach, which follows from the author's theory.
Going beyond the work and, consequently, the boundaries and possibilities of poetics suggests a more complex understanding of the relationship between the concepts of author and "reader". Taking into account the historically established ambiguity of these concepts, the following scheme can give a well-known idea of \u200b\u200bit (relationship).
Biographical author - the author as a carrier of the concept of the work - the subjective and plot-compositional forms that mediate it - the reader, combined with each of these forms - the reader as a postulated addressee, the ideal perceiving beginning - the reader as a really existing socio-historical and cultural-historical type.
This scheme is interpreted as follows. A real biographical author (writer) creates with the help of imagination and processing of the life material of the author as a carrier of the concept of the work. The otherness of such an author, his mediation is the entire artistic phenomenon, the entire literary work, which presupposes an ideal, given, conceptualized reader. The process of perception is the process of transforming a real reader into a conceptual reader. In the process of forming such a reader, all levels of a work of art, all forms of expression of the author's consciousness take part.
We invite the student to answer the following questions:
1. What is the meaning of the word "reader"?
2. How do the different meanings of the words "author" and "reader" relate to each other?
3. What is the role of each of the points of view in the formation of the concept reader?
4. What is the path from a real reader to a conceptual reader? We recommend the student to study the following works:
Ishchuk G. N. The problem of the reader in the creative mind of L. N. Tolstoy. Kalinin, 1975; Prozorov V. V. The reader and the literary process (under the editorship of E. I. Pokusaev). Saratov, 1975.
LITERATURE
After studying the manual, students can refer to the book by V. V. Vinogradov "On the Theory of Artistic Speech" (M., 1971), which interprets the problem of the author in the light of the idea of building a science of the language of fiction.
In the monograph by G. A. Gukovsky "Gogol's Realism" (M.-L., 1959) in the sections "Storyteller in Mirgorod" (pp. 199-235) and "Storyteller in St. Petersburg stories" p. 374-387) contains a general statement of the author's problem and discusses the concepts of spatial and temporal points of view.
A differentiated classification of points of view is proposed in the book by B. A. Uspensky “The Poetics of Composition” (Moscow, 1970).
The problem of time fiction characterized by D. S. Likhachev in the book “Poetics ancient Russian literature"(L., 1967, p. 212-221; cf. Samples, With. 91-98). See also: Sat. "Rhythm, space and time in fiction" (L., 1974, ed. B.F. Egorov).
The estimated value of spatial relations in a work of art is shown in the work of Yu. M. Lotman "The problem of artistic space in Gogol's prose" ("Scientific notes of the University of Tartu", 1968, issue 209, pp. 14-50; cf. Samples, With. 103-118).
The problem of the connection between spatial and temporal relations was posed by M. M. Bakhtin in the article “Time and Space in the Novel” (“ Questions of Literature", 1974, No. 3).
The works of M. B. Khrapchenko “Reflections on the System Analysis of Literature” (Questions of Literature, .1975, No. 3) and A. P. Chudkov “Problems holistic analysis artistic system” (“Slavic Literature”, M., 1973).
The relationship between the author and the subjects of speech and consciousness is shown in the monograph by V. V. Vinogradov “On the Language of Fiction” (M., 1959, pp. 123-130, 477-492), in the article by I. M. Semenko “On the Role of the Image” author” in “Eugene Onegin” (“Proceedings of the Leningrad State Library Institute named after N. K. Krupskaya”, vol. II, 1957, pp. 127-145) and in the books of Y. O. Zundelovich “Dostoevsky’s Novels. Articles” (Tashkent, 1963) and S. G. Bocharov “Pushkin’s Poetics” (M., 1974).
The principles of the re-creation of vital material in an autobiographical work of art are discussed in L. Ya. Ginzburg's monograph "The Past and Thoughts" by Herzen (L., 1957, pp. 91-149).
The classification of types of narration is given by M. M. Bakhtin in his book “Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics” (3rd ed., M., 1972, pp. 242-274).
The same problem is posed in the book by N. L. Stepanov “Pushkin's Lyrics. Essays and Etudes” (2nd edition, Moscow, 1974. Ch. “The Image of the Author in Pushkin's Lyrics”).
The methodology for analyzing the lyrical cycle, united by subject-object relations, was proposed by 3.G. Mintz in the book "Alexander Blok's Lyrics" (1907-1911), issue II. Tartu, 1969.
Numerous samples of the analysis of the text of a work of art in the light of the author's problem can be found in the collections "The Problem of the Author in Fiction" (Issue I - IV, Voronezh, 1967 -1974; Issue I, Izhevsk, 1974).
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Introduction | ||
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Analysis as a way to synthesis | ||
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Basic concepts: subject, object, point of view | ||
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Direct evaluative point of view | ||
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Indirect evaluative point of view | ||
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Spatial point of view (position in space) | ||
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Interaction of direct-evaluative and indirect-evaluative spatial points of view | ||
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Temporal point of view (position in time) | ||
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Phraseological point of view | ||
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Subject organization | ||
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Literary genera | ||
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Introductory remarks | ||
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epic work | ||
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Subjective organization of the epic work. Classification of subjects of consciousness in the narrative text. Author and subjective organization of the work. Author and plot-compositional organization of the work | ||
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Lyric work | ||
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Subject organization lyrical work. Varieties of subjects of consciousness in a separate lyrical work. lyrical system. The main types of subject-object relations in a separate lyric poem and the main forms of expression of the author's consciousness in lyrics. Lyric hero. Actually the author. poetic world. Emotional tone. | ||
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Multi-element lyric system | ||
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dramatic work | ||
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Subjective organization of a dramatic work. The author in a dramatic work. The ratio of subjective and plot-compositional ways of expressing the author's consciousness | ||
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Childbirth interaction | ||
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Introductory remarks | ||
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Epos and other genera | ||
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Dramatic beginning in the epic. Lyrical beginning in the epic | ||
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Lyric and other genera | ||
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The epic beginning in the lyrics. Dramatic beginning in lyrics | ||
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Drama and other genera | ||
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On the Change in the Subjective Organization of a Work of Art in the Process of Historical and Literary Development | ||
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Improper direct speech | ||
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Literature |
B. O. KORMAN
STUDY WORKSHOP
ARTWORK
TUTORIAL
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2 See: Gukovsky G.A. Gogol's realism. M.-L., "Fiction", 1959, p. 213 - 214; Zhdanovsky N.P. Realism Pomyalovsky. M., "Nauka", 1960, p. 100 - 101; Bukhshtab B.Ya. A.A. Fet. Introductory article in the book: A.A. Fet. - Full. Sobr. Verses. L., "Soviet writer", 1969, p. 26 - 27.
3 In the absence of the specified source, any Soviet edition of DV Davydov's poems can be used.
4 In the following, the concepts of “subject of speech”, “subject of consciousness” and, accordingly, “carrier of speech”, “carrier of consciousness” are used as synonyms.
5 See the analysis of “Duma” in the book by L. Ya. Ginsburg “The creative path of Lermontov (L., 1940, p. 78)
6 It should be kept in mind that the analogy between literature and cinema is not complete. The concept of a spatial point of view applies to any frame of a film; in fiction, however, the situation is different: there are many places in a literary text in relation to which the question of a spatial point of view cannot be raised (reflections, historical digressions, digressions etc.). But it's not only that. Even where there is a spatial point of view in a work of art, it cannot be indicated with such certainty as it can be done in the cinema.
7 The method of stepwise narrowing of the image, which plays such an important role in folklore, can be interpreted in terms of the author's theory: the distance between the subject and the object decreases and, accordingly, the field narrows, and the objects themselves grow larger.
8 See: Gordeeva G.N. The problem of static and dynamic in the poetry of I.A. Bunin. (Monographic analysis of the poem "On Nevsky", 1916). - News of the Voronezh Ped. in-ta, t. 114, 1971, p. 82-83.
9Bakhtin M. M. Time and space in the novel. - "Questions of Literature" 1974, No. 3, p. 179.
1 0 Bakhtin M. M. Questions of literature and aesthetics. M., "Fiction", 1975, p. 235. The collection "Rhythm, space and time in fiction" (L., "Nauka", 1974. Editor-in-chief - BF Egorov) is devoted to the study of space-time relations.
1 1 The relevant passage is given in study guide“Examples of text study in the works of Soviet literary critics” (Issue 1. epic work. Izhevsk, 1974, pp. 91-98). For further references to this edition, we abbreviate it as Samples and indicate the corresponding pages.
1 2 For more information about the phraseological point of view, see our article "Notes on the point of view" ("Genre and composition of a literary work", issue, II Kaliningrad, 1976, pp. 14-18).
1 3 Gukovsky G. A. Gogol's Realism. M.-L., 1959, p. 219-222. Cf.: Samples, p. 42-45.
1 4 KLE, vol. 6, p. 866-877.
1 5 Lotman Yu. M. Ideological structure " captain's daughter". In the book: “Pushkin collection. Pskov, 1962 p. 5
16 Ibid., p. 6.
1 7 Lotman Yu. M. The ideological structure of the "Captain's Daughter", p. 6.
18 Shklovsky V. B. Notes on the prose of Russian classics, ed. 2nd, rev. and additional M., 1955, p. 76.
19 On subtext, see Silman T. Subtext is the depth of a text. - "Questions of Literature", 1969, No. 1; Silman T. Subtext as a linguistic phenomenon. - "Philological Sciences", 1969, No. 1; Korman B. O. Results and prospects of studying the problem of the author. - "Pages of the history of Russian literature", M., "Nauka", 1971; Magazannik E. B. To the question of subtext. - "Problems of Poetics", 2. Samarkand, 1973; Tsilevich L. M. Plot of Chekhov's story. Riga, Zvaigzne, 1976.
20 A lyrical poem may contain dialogues, direct speech, etc., belonging to another subject of speech. In this case, we are dealing with lyrics that include epic and dramatic beginnings.
21 Compare: “In compressed lyrical forms, the evaluative beginning reaches extraordinary intensity. By its very essence, lyrics are a conversation about significant, high, beautiful (sometimes in a very complex, contradictory, ironic refraction), a kind of exposition of the ideals and life values of a person. (Ginzburg L. About lyrics. M.-L., "Soviet Writer", 19th, p. 5-6).
22 Ginzburg L. About lyrics, p. eight.
23 Of course, it should be borne in mind that these values not only exhibit varying degrees of stability in a historical perspective, but within a given period they can act as anti-values in a different axiological system.
24Compare: Gribushin I. Classification of lyric genres according to the ratio of subject and object. "Problems of Literary Genres". Tomsk. 1972.
25 The possibilities that open up in the analysis of a single lyrical poem are shown by Yu. M. Lotman in the book "Analysis of a Poetic Text" (L., 1972).
26 At the end of Lermontov's tragically cut short creative path, his lyrical system begins to turn into a multi-element one. See about this in the book: Ginzburg L. Ya. Lermontov's creative path. L., 1940.
27 The term "lyrical hero" is not accepted by all literary critics; there are Adventures in the very interpretation of it. An overview of different opinions on this issue is given in the article by K. G. Petrosov "On the forms of expression of the author's consciousness in lyrical poetry" (in the collection: "Russian Soviet poetry and versification". M., 1969, A convincing solution to the problem of the lyrical hero is contained in the book L. Ya. Ginzburg "On Lyrics" (M.-L., 1964; 2nd ed., 1974).
28 See: Remizova N. A. The poetic world of A. T. Tvardovsky as a system. In: "The Problem of the Author in Fiction", vol. IV. Voronezh, 1974.
29 Actually, the narrator is very close to the author. In both cases, the reader's attention is focused not on the "I", but on thoughts, feelings, landscapes abstracted from the "I" (poems with the actual author), or the fate of some person about whom the "I" tells (poem with a narrator) .
30 See also: Viktorovich V. A. Plot opposition between the narrator and the hero in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment. Russian literature of the 19th century. Questions of plot and composition, vol. II. Gorky, 1975.
31 See: Korman B. O. Generic nature of Paustovsky's story "Telegram" (On the question of the specifics of lyrical prose). Genre and Composition of a Literary Work. II issue, Kaliningrad. 1976.
32 The systemic nature of the changes taking place in different levels epic-narrative work, in its interaction with lyrics, was noted in the abstract of the candidate's dissertation of A.P. Kazarkin "Poetics of the modern lyrical story (author's problem)" (Tomsk, 1974).
33 Gukovsky G. A. Nekrasov and Tyutchev (On the Statement of the Question). In Sat: II. L. Nekrasov. Articles, materials, abstracts, messages (by the 12th birthday). "Scientific Bulletin of Leningrad State University", No. 16 - 17, 1947, p. 52.
34 In narrative prose using improperly direct speech, the subject of consciousness (as a rule, the narrator) is usually not perceptible behind the main text; it reveals itself only in analysis. For the reader of a lyrical work, the main text is not subjectively neutral: behind it is always - to a greater or lesser extent - a certain consciousness is directly perceptible. In other words, in lyric the main text serves as a neutral environment for someone else's speech only in the sense that the features of someone else's speech appear against its background; but the main text in the lyrics is subjectively as little neutral as someone else's speech.
35Vinogradov VV Pushkin's style. M., 1941, p. 17.
The poetic polyphony in Tyutchev's lyrics was distinguished by a special character. This issue, in connection with the problem of the poet's creative method, is considered in a series of articles by L.M. Binshtok: "On the issue of Tyutchev's attitude to the world" (Questions of Theory and History of Literature. Samarkand, 1974); “The subject structure of Tyutchev’s poem “The feast is over, the choirs have fallen silent” (“Lyric Poem”, L., 1974); “Subjective forms of expression of the author's consciousness in the lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev” (“The problem of the author in fiction”, issue I. Izhevsk, 1974); “On the composition of two poems by F. I. Tyutchev” (“Genre and composition of a literary work”, issue II, Kaliningrad, 1976).
37Bakhtin M. Word in poetry and prose. "Questions of Literature", 1972, No. 6, p. 56-57.
