Culture of Ancient Russia(or Culture of Medieval Russia) - the culture of Russia during the period of the Old Russian state from the moment of its formation to the Tatar-Mongol invasion.

Writing and education

The existence of writing among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. Cyril in the second half of the 9th century created the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic), in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, on the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which had long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, an alphabet arose, later called Cyrillic. In the future, this easier and more convenient alphabet replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Russia contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. It was essential that Christianity was adopted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in the native language.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian Church from the very beginning did not become a monopoly in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among the strata of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Torzhok, Staraya Russa, Pskov, Staraya Ryazan, etc. These are letters, memos, training exercises, etc. The letter, therefore, was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Often there are inscriptions on handicraft products. Ordinary citizens left numerous records on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities. The oldest surviving book in Russia is the so-called. "Novgorod Psalter" of the first quarter of the 11th century: wooden, wax-covered tablets with texts of 75 and 76 psalms.

Most of the written monuments before the Mongol period perished during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them survived. The oldest of them are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were made testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the skills of “book construction” that were established by that time.

Correspondence of books was carried out mainly in monasteries. The situation changed in the 12th century, when the craft of "book describers" also arose in large cities. This speaks of the growing literacy of the population and the increased need for books, which the monastic scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept copyists of books, and some of them copied books on their own.

At the same time, the main centers of literacy continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, where there were special workshops with permanent teams of scribes. They were engaged not only in the correspondence of books, but also kept chronicles, created original literary works, and translated foreign books. One of the leading centers of this activity was the Kiev Caves Monastery, which developed a special literary trend that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Russia. As chronicles testify, already in the 11th century in Russia, libraries with up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Needing literate people, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich organized the first schools. Literacy was not only the privilege of the ruling class, it also penetrated into the environment of the townspeople. Letters found in a significant number in Novgorod, written on birch bark (from the 11th century), contain the correspondence of ordinary citizens; inscriptions were also made on handicrafts.

Education was highly valued in ancient Russian society. In the literature of that time, one can find many panegyrics on the book, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching”.

Literature

With the adoption of Christianity, Ancient Russia was attached to book culture. The development of Russian writing gradually became the basis for the emergence of literature and was closely connected with Christianity. Despite the fact that writing was known in the Russian lands before, only after the baptism of Russia did it become widespread. It also received a basis in the form of a developed cultural tradition of Eastern Christianity. An extensive translated literature became the basis for the formation of a non-own tradition.

The original literature of Ancient Russia is characterized by great ideological richness and high artistic perfection. Its prominent representative was Metropolitan Hilarion, the author of the famous "Sermon on Law and Grace", dating from the middle of the 11th century. In this work, the idea of ​​the need for the unity of Russia is clearly manifested. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting "grace" (Christianity) with "law" (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God's chosen people inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​transferring heavenly attention and disposition from one chosen people to all mankind, the equality of all peoples.

An outstanding writer and historian was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor. His “Reading” about the princes Boris and Gleb and the “Life of Theodosius”, valuable for the history of life, have been preserved. "Reading" is written in a somewhat abstract style, instructive and ecclesiastical elements are reinforced in it. Approximately 1113 is an outstanding monument of ancient Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years", preserved in the composition of later chronicles of the XIV-XV centuries. This work is compiled on the basis of earlier chronicles - historical works dedicated to the past of the Russian land. The author of the Tale, the monk Nestor, managed to vividly and figuratively tell about the emergence of Russia and connect its history with the history of other countries. The main attention in the "Tale" is given to the events of political history, the deeds of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and life of the people are described in less detail. The religious worldview of its compiler was clearly manifested in the annals: he sees the ultimate cause of all events and actions of people in the action of divine forces, “providence”. However, religious differences and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, the desire to identify real causal relationships between events.

In turn, Theodosius, hegumen of the Pechersk Monastery, about whom Nestor also wrote, wrote several teachings and letters to Prince Izyaslav.

Vladimir Monomakh was an outstanding writer. His "Instruction" painted the ideal image of a prince - a just feudal ruler, touched upon the pressing issues of our time: the need for strong princely power, unity in repelling nomadic raids, etc. "Instruction" is a work of a secular nature. It is imbued with the immediacy of human experiences, alien to abstraction and filled with real images and examples taken from life.

The question of princely power in the life of the state, its duties and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for a successful struggle against external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. These reflections are embodied in one of the most talented works of the 12th-13th centuries, which has come down to us in two main editions of the “Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniel writes with humor and sarcasm about the sad reality surrounding him.

A special place in the literature of Ancient Russia is occupied by the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", dating from the end of the 12th century. It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. The description of this campaign only serves as an occasion for the author to reflect on the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the struggle against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Russia in the princely civil strife, in the egoistic policy of the princes, thirsting for personal glory. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The author belonged to the milieu. He constantly used the concepts of “honor” and “glory” characteristic of her, but filled them with a broader, patriotic content. The Tale of Igor's Campaign embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of that time: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism.

The Batu invasion had a great influence on Russian culture. The first work devoted to the invasion - "The Word about the destruction of the Russian land." This word has not come down to us completely. Also Batu's invasion is dedicated to "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu" - an integral part of the cycle of stories about the "miraculous" icon of Nikola Zaraisky.

Architecture

Until the end of the tenth century, there was no monumental stone architecture in Russia, but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. Significant skills in the field of wooden architecture led to the rapid development of stone architecture and its originality. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone temples begins, the principles of construction of which were borrowed from Byzantium. The Byzantine architects called to Kyiv passed on to the Russian masters the extensive experience of the building culture of Byzantium.

The large churches of Kievan Rus, built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the Eastern Slavic lands. The architectural style of Kievan Rus was established under the influence of the Byzantine. Early Orthodox churches were mostly made of wood.

The first stone church of Kievan Rus was the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv, the construction of which dates back to 989. The church was built as a cathedral not far from the prince's tower. In the first half of the XII century. The church has undergone significant renovations. At this time, the southwestern corner of the temple was completely rebuilt, a powerful pylon appeared in front of the western facade, supporting the wall. These events, most likely, were the restoration of the temple after a partial collapse due to an earthquake.

Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built in the XI century, is one of the most significant architectural structures of this period. Initially, St. Sophia Cathedral was a five-nave cross-domed church with 13 domes. On three sides, it was surrounded by a two-tier gallery, and from the outside - an even wider single-tier one. The cathedral was built by the builders of Constantinople, with the participation of Kyiv masters. At the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, it was externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian baroque style. The temple is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Painting

After the baptism of Russia, new types of monumental painting came from Byzantium - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Also, the iconographic canon was adopted from Byzantium, the invariability of which was strictly guarded by the church. This predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who added to the existing iconography a system for arranging plots in the interior of the temple, as well as a manner of planar writing. The mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral are known for their special beauty. They are made in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of shades of smalt, skillfully combined the mosaic with the fresco. Of the mosaic works, the images of Christ the Almighty in the central dome are especially significant. All images are imbued with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

Another unique monument of the secular painting of Ancient Russia is the wall paintings of the two towers of the Kyiv Sophia. They depict scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds, which somewhat distinguishes them from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes in Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

In the XII-XIII centuries, local features began to appear in the painting of individual cultural centers. This is typical for the Novgorod land and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. Since the XII century, a specific Novgorod style of monumental painting has been formed, which reaches a fuller expression in the paintings of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and especially the Savior-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, in contrast to the Kyiv cycles, there is a noticeable desire to simplify artistic techniques, to an expressive interpretation of iconographic types. In easel painting, Novgorod features were less pronounced.

In Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, fragments of frescoes of the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, have been preserved until the Mongol period. Based on this material, the researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The best preserved fresco of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral depicting the Last Judgment. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. Several large icons of the 12th - early 13th centuries belong to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The earliest of them is the "Bogolyubskaya Mother of God", dating from the middle of the XII century, stylistically close to the famous "Vladimir Mother of God", which is of Byzantine origin.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Ancient Russia. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, incantations, songs, which were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included pre-wedding songs, funeral laments, songs at feasts and feasts. Mythological tales, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs, also became widespread. For many years, the church, in an effort to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against "vile" customs, "demonic games" and "blasphemers". However, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, having lost their initial religious meaning over time, while the rites turned into folk games.

There were also such forms of folklore that were not associated with a pagan cult. These include proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs. The authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Written monuments have preserved numerous traditions and legends about the founders of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the struggle against foreigners. So, folk tales about the events of the II-VI centuries were reflected in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign".

In the 9th century, a new epic genre arose - the heroic epic epic, which became the pinnacle of oral folk art and the result of the growth of national consciousness. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. Epics are based on real historical events, the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. So, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the ancient Russian chronicles.

In turn, in the military estate, in the princely retinue environment, there was their own oral poetry. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. The princely squads had their own "songwriters" - professionals who composed songs - "glory" in honor of the princes and their soldiers.

Folklore continued to develop even after the spread of written literature, remaining an important element of ancient Russian culture. In the following centuries, many writers and poets used the plots of oral poetry and the arsenal of its artistic means and techniques. Also in Russia, the art of playing the harp was widespread, of which it is the birthplace.

Decorative and applied crafts

Kievan Rus was famous for its craftsmen in applied, decorative arts, who were fluent in various techniques: filigree, enamel, granulation, niello, as evidenced by jewelry. It is no coincidence that foreigners admired the artistic creativity of our craftsmen. L. Lyubimov in his book “The Art of Ancient Russia” gives a description of star-shaped silver kolts from the Tver treasure of the 11th–12th centuries: “Six silver cones with balls are soldered to a ring with a semicircular shield. 5000 tiny rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm from wire 0.02 cm thick are soldered onto each cone! Only microphotography made it possible to establish these dimensions. But that's not all. The rings serve only as a pedestal for grains, so each one has another silver grain with a diameter of 0.04 cm! Jewelry was decorated with cloisonné enamel. Masters used bright colors, skillfully selected colors. In the drawings, mythological pagan plots and images were traced, which were especially often used in applied art. They can be seen on carved wooden furniture, household utensils, fabrics embroidered with gold, in carved bone products, known in Western Europe under the name "carving of the Taurus", "carving of the Rus".

clothing

Modern researchers have numerous evidence of how princes and boyars dressed. Verbal descriptions, images on icons, frescoes and miniatures, as well as fragments of fabrics from sarcophagi have been preserved. Various researchers compared these materials in their works with references to clothing in written documentary and narrative sources - chronicles, lives and various acts.

§ 22. Old Russian culture

Conditions for the development of culture

For a long time, paganism was decisive in the spiritual life of the Slavs. After baptism, he was replaced by a different, in many ways opposite worldview. Paganism was based on the cult of nature and its phenomena, love for earthly life. In Christianity, earthly things were called mortal and transient, and life after death was considered real life.

As a result of the interaction of paganism and Christianity in Russia, a peculiar culture has developed. It developed within the framework of Christianity, but absorbed many pagan motifs and rituals that have survived to this day, such as the celebration of Shrovetide.

Through Christianity, many achievements of ancient, especially ancient Greek culture were perceived. Great was the influence and culture of the southern Slavs, especially the Bulgarians. Of considerable importance was also the influence of nomadic peoples, both ancient (Scythians, Sarmatians) and modern Russia (Khazars, Polovtsy). Finally, Russia had extensive ties with Western Europe and perceived its culture.

Writing and literature

For Russia was characterized by widespread literacy. For Europe at that time, this was unusual. It is no coincidence that the daughter of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, Queen Anna of France, in a letter to her father, expressed her surprise at the low level of education of the inhabitants of the kingdom compared to Russia. Catholicism considered writing only in Latin, which was inaccessible to the majority of the population, to be important. Orthodoxy allowed the reading of the Bible in national languages. This made literacy much more accessible and widespread.

Writing existed in Russia even before the adoption of Christianity. Evidence of this is the message of the annals about the text of the treaties of Oleg and Igor with Byzantium. Together with Christianity, writing came to Russia, created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

The level of education in the Russian lands is evidenced by birch bark letters - letters from people of very different social status, gender and age. The inscriptions on pottery and other products also speak of the literacy of the townspeople.

The most important work of ancient Russian literature is The Tale of Bygone Years. Traditionally, the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor is considered its author. However, this opinion, which is well-established in the Russian national consciousness, does not correspond to scientific data. Monk Nestor is the author of two works of ancient Russian literature - "Reading about Boris and Gleb" and "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves." The description of the life and death of Russian saints in the "Reading about Boris and Gleb" is fundamentally at odds with the presentation of the same events in the "Tale of Bygone Years". In fact, The Tale of Bygone Years is a complex work that has incorporated fragments of various chronicles and literary works of many authors.

Among the outstanding Russian writers is Metropolitan Hilarion. In his philosophical and journalistic work "The Word of Law and Grace", he substantiates the rightful place of Russia among other Christian countries, reveals the meaning of the Baptism of Russia.

Literary monuments are the works of Vladimir Monomakh, the author of many letters-messages and "Teachings" to children. The "Instruction" is filled with deep philosophical reflections on the meaning of life, on the duties of a ruler, on the relationship between morality and politics. At the same time, this is the first autobiography in Russian.

Philosophical and religious searches were reflected in such works as "Word" and "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik, and others.

All these works were written in line with the Christian tradition, but there were also works where pagan features prevailed over Christian ones. This is, first of all, the most famous monument of ancient Russian literature - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". It tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsy in 1185. In poetic form, a wide panorama of the life of Russia at that time is given. The unknown author of the Lay urged the princes to unite to fight the common enemy.

Architecture and fine arts

The first stone Christian churches were built in Russia by masters from Byzantium. But already in them the original features of Russian architecture appeared. The oldest surviving building is St. Sophia Cathedral of the 11th century. in Kyiv, but later it was significantly rebuilt. Quite a bit inferior to him in antiquity

Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, preserved almost in its original form. This is a majestic and severe building, characteristic of Northern Russia.

In the XII century. a special Russian type of single-domed churches is being developed. Most of them are preserved in Vladimir - Suzdal land. The most famous temple is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, built under Andrei Bogolyubsky. True, now it has also somewhat changed its appearance compared to the original. The temple strikes with beauty and harmony. No less beautiful are the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals of Vladimir, the churches of Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, and others. Independent architectural schools have developed in Novgorod and other lands.

Many cathedrals were decorated with stone carvings and reliefs. They manifested the desire of ancient Russian masters for beauty, which did not always coincide with the ascetic ideals of the church. Images of animals, plants, people speak of the preservation of pagan motifs in the visual arts.

The artistic creativity of Ancient Russia is also represented by frescoes, icons, and mosaics.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

What were the features of the development of ancient Russian culture?

Why did the general level of literacy in Ancient Russia exceed the level of literacy in Western Europe?

Give a brief description of the famous monuments of ancient Russian literature.

What architectural monuments of Ancient Russia do you know? If you have seen any of these monuments, please describe your impressions of them.

Fill the table.

A work of literature, its time. creation

In the ninth century the Old Russian state arose - Kievan Rus, which united the East Slavic and some non-Slavic tribes. The political unification of these tribes contributed to their ethnic consolidation, the formation of a single ancient Russian people and the formation of its culture. However, for a long time, local features that had developed in the previous era of tribal unions were preserved in it. A certain role here was played by the difference in the level of socio-economic development of various regions of the Old Russian state.

A powerful basis for the formation and development of the original ancient Russian culture was the rich cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs. Already in the VII-VIII centuries. they developed the main complex of handicraft and agricultural tools that were used over the following centuries. The main types of production activities were determined, during which labor skills were formed, practical knowledge about nature was accumulated. The pagan religion served to consolidate and transfer production and social experience. Paganism is also associated with oral folk art, which not only remained one of the important components of the culture of the following centuries, but also had a huge impact on literature.

The state of Kievan Rus was formed on a multi-ethnic basis. The composition of the Old Russian nationality, in addition to the East Slavic tribes - its main component, also included some non-Slavic tribes. Elements of their culture merged into ancient Russian culture, manifesting themselves in the ethnographic features of the population of a number of regions.

However, the culture of Ancient Russia did not become a simple continuation of the culture of the previous time. Profound changes in the socio-economic and political life, expressed in the maturation of feudal relations, in the emergence of the state and in the formation of the ancient Russian people, led to qualitative changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs and led to a rapid rise in development, as a result of which their culture over a relatively short historical period reached a high level and took a worthy place in the world medieval culture.

The formation and development of feudal relations led to the emergence and growth of differences between folk culture and the culture of the princely retinue environment, which especially increased after the adoption of Christianity. Throughout the Middle Ages, official culture borrowed a lot from folk culture, the custodian of original principles (for example, it widely used the rich traditions of oral folk art). The close interaction of the “two cultures”, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land that unites them, and the spirit of high patriotism that pervades them, gave the entire ancient Russian culture a certain ideological unity, a nationwide character.

Being formed on the basis of the traditions of the Eastern Slavs, the ancient Russian culture at the same time actively interacted with the culture of other countries and peoples.

Kievan Rus, being one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, occupied an important geographical position. Transit trade routes ran through its territory, connecting Northern Europe with Byzantium and Western Europe with the countries of the East. The development of trade and political relations of Ancient Russia with the countries of the West and the East predetermined the breadth and diversity of its cultural contacts, which took shape in different ways and varied in intensity. The most multifaceted were cultural ties with Byzantium, especially intensified after the adoption of Christianity by Russia.

As for the assessment of the nature, scale and significance of the Byzantine influence on ancient Russian culture, two opposing points of view are equally unacceptable. Supporters of one of them, defending the idea of ​​Byzantine political, ideological and cultural predominance in Russia, consider Byzantine civilization almost the only source of culture of Ancient Russia, and ancient Russian art - a provincial branch of Byzantine art. The opposite concept consists in upholding the complete independence of ancient Russian culture, in recognizing it as free from any external influences.

The Byzantine influence on ancient Russian culture is obvious and does not need proof. Undoubtedly, its great positive significance for Russia, but there is no need to talk about any Byzantine "dominance".

Firstly, the Byzantine influence was not a source, but a consequence of the development of ancient Russian culture, it was caused by the internal needs of society, its readiness to perceive the achievements of a more highly developed culture.

Secondly, it was not violent. Russia was not a passive object of its application; on the contrary, it played an active role in this process.

Thirdly, the borrowed cultural achievements underwent a profound transformation under the influence of local traditions, were creatively processed and became the property of the original ancient Russian culture.

Byzantine influence was neither all-encompassing nor permanent. Cultural ties between states developed most intensively from the end of the 10th century to the middle of the 12th century. The impact of Byzantine culture on the upper strata of society was significant, it was much less experienced by the general population. This influence was especially strong in the field of canon law, cult fine arts. Secular culture was less affected by him, although translated secular literature was widely used in Ancient Russia. If in architecture from the middle of the XII century. this influence is weakening, then in painting it was long and stable.

The cultural contacts of Kievan Rus with the countries of Central and Western Europe had a different character. In the pre-Mongol period, Russia was not inferior in its cultural development to most European countries, its cultural interaction with the countries of Europe was mutual and equal. The affiliation of both regions to the Christian world contributed to the development of these ties. As for the differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy, the Russian Church in the initial period of its history was still not strong enough to prevent communion with the "Latins", and had to show religious tolerance towards the Catholic world.

The cultural ties of Kievan Rus with Western Europe especially intensified in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries, during the heyday of Romanesque art in the West and the gradual weakening of Byzantine influence in Russia. They affected various areas of culture. Thanks to the development of trade, there was an exchange of handicrafts and applied arts, and, consequently, technical skills. Products of Russian jewelers were highly valued in other countries.

In the field of architecture, these connections were expressed in the fact that from the middle of the XI century. certain elements of the Romanesque style began to penetrate into Russia (Novgorod, Polotsk), which were especially clearly manifested in the decoration of Vladimir-Suzdal churches, and in literature and folklore this found expression in the spread of “wandering” folklore plots and in the exchange of literary works, especially with Slavic countries.

Separate Russian motifs (for example, those associated with the image of Ilya Muromets) entered German and Scandinavian folklore. In the West, Russian chronicles were known, which were used in compiling Latin chronicles. The development of cultural ties between Russia and Western Europe was hampered from the middle of the 13th century. in connection with the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of the Golden Horde yoke.

The original culture of Ancient Russia, which developed in constant contact with the cultures of other countries and peoples, became an important component of the culture of the medieval world.

From the beginning of the XII century. in the history of Russia, a period of political fragmentation begins. The unified state breaks up into independent lands and principalities, but elements of their political unity continue to be preserved. This process was a natural and progressive stage in the development of society and its statehood. The separation of separate principalities not only did not stop the development of culture, but also contributed to its further flourishing. The most perfect and remarkable monuments of art and literature of Ancient Russia were created during this period.

With the advent of new cultural centers, local features in the culture of various lands and principalities became more noticeable, due to their socio-economic and political development, the direction and nature of their cultural ties, and the influence of local traditions. But this did not indicate the beginning of the disintegration of the ancient Russian people and its culture. On the contrary, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land continued to be one of the leading ones, which was reflected in folklore and in literary monuments (for example, in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", in "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land", etc.).

With the exception of some separatist tendencies that manifested themselves in Novgorod culture, in general there was no desire to justify and justify political fragmentation. As N. G. Chernyshevsky rightly noted, “specific fragmentation did not leave any traces in the concepts of the people, because it never had roots in its heart.” Despite the diversity of local schools, styles, and traditions, Old Russian culture continued to be fundamentally united.

Folklore

Written sources testify to the richness and diversity of the folklore of Kievan Rus. A significant place in it was occupied by calendar ritual poetry: incantations, incantations, songs, which were an integral part of the agrarian cult. Ritual folklore also included wedding songs, funeral lamentations, songs at feasts and feasts.

Mythological tales were also widespread, reflecting the pagan ideas of the ancient Slavs. For many centuries, the church, in an effort to eradicate the remnants of paganism, waged a stubborn struggle against "vile" customs, "demonic games" and "ko-shun". Nevertheless, these types of folklore survived in folk life until the 19th-20th centuries, losing their original religious meaning over time.

There were also such forms of folklore that were not associated with a pagan cult, such as proverbs, sayings, riddles, fairy tales, labor songs. The authors of literary works widely used them in their work. Fairy-tale motifs and images are reflected in chronicles, in hagiographic literature (for example, in the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon).

Written monuments brought to us numerous traditions and legends about the founders of tribes and princely dynasties, about the founders of cities, about the struggle against foreigners. Folk tales about the events of the II-VI centuries. reflected in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign": its author mentions the "ages of Trojans" (II-IV centuries), the "Time of Busov" (IV century), the movement of the Slavs to the Balkans in the VI century. The Tale of Bygone Years preserved the legends about the struggle of the Slavs with the Avars in the 7th century.

The significance of the historical genres of folklore increases with the formation of the state and the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian people. For many generations, the people created and kept a kind of "oral chronicle" in the form of prose legends and epic tales about the past of their native land. The Oral Chronicle preceded the written chronicle and served as one of its main sources. Among such legends used by the chroniclers are the legends about Kiya, Shchek and Khoriv and the founding of Kyiv, about calling the Varangians, about campaigns against Constantinople, about Oleg and his death from a snakebite, about Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, about Mstislav's single combat and Rededi and many others. Annalistic narrative about the events of the IX-X centuries. almost entirely based on folklore material.

By the X century. refers to the emergence of a new epic genre - the heroic epic epic, which was the pinnacle of oral folk art. Epics are oral poetic works about the past. They are based on real historical events, the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. So, the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the annals. However, epics rarely retained the accuracy of actual details. But the dignity of epics is not in exact adherence to historical facts. Their main value is that these works were created by the people and reflect their views, assessment of the essence of historical events and understanding of the social relations that have developed in the Old Russian state, its ideals.

Most of the epic stories are connected with the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the time of the unity and power of Russia and the successful struggle against the steppe nomads. But the true hero of the epic epic is not Prince Vladimir, but the heroes who personified the people. The favorite folk hero was Ilya Muromets, a peasant son, a courageous patriot warrior, a defender of "widows and orphans." The people also glorified the peasant-plowman Mikula Selya-ninovich.
The epics reflected the idea of ​​Russia as a single state. Their main theme is the struggle of the people against foreign invaders, they are imbued with the spirit of patriotism. The ideas of the unity and greatness of Russia, service to the motherland were preserved in epics and in times of political fragmentation, the Golden Horde yoke. For many centuries, these ideas, images of heroic heroes inspired the people to fight the enemy, which predetermined the longevity of the epic epic, preserved in the people's memory.

Oral poetry also existed in the princely retinue environment. In squad songs, princes and their exploits were glorified. Echoes of these songs are heard, for example, in the annalistic description of Prince Svyatoslav and in the description of his campaigns. The princely squads had their own "songwriters" - professionals who composed songs of "glory" in honor of the princes and their warriors. Such court singers were probably Boyan, mentioned in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, and the notorious singer Mitus, mentioned in the Galician-Volyn Chronicle.

Oral folk art continued to live and develop even after the appearance of written literature, remaining an important element of the culture of the Middle Ages. His influence on literature continued in the following centuries: writers and poets used the plots of oral poetry and the arsenal of its artistic means and techniques.

Religion. Adoption of Christianity

An important milestone in the history of ancient Russian culture is the adoption of Christianity by Russia, which influenced the entire medieval culture and became its ideological basis.
The pre-Christian religion, usually referred to by the old church tradition as pagan, was a whole complex of primitive views, beliefs and cults that reflected the dependence of people on the surrounding natural conditions, but at the same time served as a form of consolidation and transmission of centuries-old economic experience, specific practical knowledge, accumulated over many generations.

In paganism, several layers of different times can be distinguished, dating back to different historical eras. The most archaic layer was: the spiritualization of nature, belief in good and evil spirits (goblin, water, mermaids, coastlines, etc.), supposedly controlling the elements and individual earthly objects (forests, water sources, etc.), veneration of the earth , water, fire, plants and some animals. The later layer is represented by communal agrarian cults and the family and clan cult of ancestors. Later, tribal cults were formed: each tribe had its own patron gods. Written sources have preserved the names of gods that symbolized the main natural elements and acted as patrons of various sectors of the economy: the god of thunder and lightning Perun, the solar deities Dazhdbog and Svarog, the god of the winds Stribog, the deity of the feminine principle of nature and women's work Mokosh, the patron of cattle breeding Veles (Volos) and etc. During the formation of the state, the cult of Perun became a princely retinue cult.

The preservation of tribal cults, polytheism interfered with the real unification of the tribes. Vladimir's attempt to create a single pantheon of the most revered gods, headed by Perun, and to give it a nationwide character was unsuccessful. The young state needed an appropriate ideological design. With the establishment of feudal relations, paganism had to give way to a religion that sanctified social inequality. Christianity became such a religion with its monotheism, the hierarchy of saints, the idea of ​​posthumous retribution, the developed doctrine of domination and submission, and the preaching of non-resistance to evil by violence.

The new religion did not immediately take root in life. The Baptism of Russia, which took place in 988, practically meant only the proclamation of Christianity as the official religion and the prohibition of pagan cults. Even the purely formal Christianization of the population met with strong resistance and dragged on for a long period. Pagan beliefs, connected by thousands of threads with everyday economic activity, turned out to be extremely tenacious. For many centuries, the people "otai" (secretly) worshiped pagan gods, made sacrifices "by the demon, the swamp and the well." Even in the princely retinue environment, most of all interested in establishing a new religion, during the XI-XIII centuries. remnants of pagan beliefs and rituals were preserved (for example, the cult of the Family and the Earth), which was reflected in retinue poetry and applied art.

Christianity has never been able to supplant paganism. Being unable to completely eradicate the ancient Slavic beliefs and cults, it was forced to adapt to the pagan consciousness of the people, to assimilate these cults, to absorb their elements. As a result, archaic beliefs and rituals were preserved not only in the form of pagan customs, holidays, and cults unrecognized and persecuted by the church, but also continued to exist under the outer shell of an official church cult. The “idolatry” persecuted by the church survived in the form of the veneration of icons, especially “miracle-working” ones. In the cult of "holy places" and "manifested" icons, traces of veneration of natural objects - plants, water sources are visible. A concession to pagan polytheism was the cult of saints who assumed the functions of pre-Christian patron gods.

Among the people, the images of the Christian religion were associated with everyday working life, with the real needs of people. The ancient Slavic gods - the patrons of various areas of human activity, the rulers of nature, the healer gods - continued to exist under the names of the saints of the Orthodox pantheon. So, the image of Elijah the Prophet merged with the image of Perun the Thunderer, saints Modest, Blasius, George became patrons of cattle. The cult of the Mother of God was based on the veneration of the ancient goddess of fertility, in her image, as well as in the image of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, the earth, earthly fertility, the fertile principle as a whole were personified. Christian holidays were timed to coincide with the holidays of the pagan agrarian calendar, were associated with certain stages of agricultural work.

Thus, Christianity adopted from the outside, infiltrating the masses, was significantly transformed under the influence of local traditional beliefs and cults. At the same time, Christianity also had an impact on the worldview, subordinating the people's consciousness to the official ideology.

In Russian historical science, the adoption of Christianity by Russia is assessed as a progressive phenomenon. The new religion contributed to the formation and strengthening of the early feudal statehood, the international position of Russia, which took its rightful place among the Christian states. It contributed to the further consolidation of the East Slavic tribes into a single nationality, the state unity of all Russian lands. The adoption of Christianity led to the expansion of international cultural relations of Russia and created the conditions for introducing it to the cultural achievements of Byzantium and the entire Christian world.

The great role of the church in the development of Russian culture is also recognized: in the spread of writing and "bookishness", the creation of significant artistic values. But at the same time, the church hindered the development of secular culture, scientific knowledge, and folk art. It should be noted, however, that in the pre-Mongolian period this tendency had not yet fully manifested itself, since the church was not yet strong enough to subjugate the entire culture and establish control over it. This explains the fact that in the culture of this time the secular direction is so palpable.

Writing. Education. book business

The appearance of writing was due to the internal needs of society at a certain stage of its development: the complication of socio-economic relations and the formation of the state. This meant a qualitative leap in the development of culture, since writing is the most important means of consolidating and transmitting knowledge, thoughts, ideas, preserving and disseminating cultural achievements in time and space.
The existence of written language among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period is beyond doubt. This is evidenced by numerous written sources and archaeological finds.

According to them, you can draw up a general picture of the formation of Slavic writing.
In the legends of the Chernorizet Khrabr “On Writings” (end of IX - beginning of X century) it is reported that “before, I didn’t have books, but with features and cuts I read and reptile.” The emergence of this primitive pictographic pattern (“features and cuts”) is attributed by researchers to the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Its scope was limited. These were, apparently, the simplest counting signs in the form of dashes and notches, generic and personal signs of property, signs for divination, calendar signs that served to date the dates for the start of various agricultural works, pagan holidays, etc. Such a letter was unsuitable for recording complex texts, the need for which appeared with the birth of the first Slavic states. The Slavs began to use Greek letters to record their native speech, but "without dispensation", that is, without adapting the Greek alphabet to the peculiarities of the phonetics of the Slavic languages ​​(Proto-Cyrillic).

The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Byzantine missionary monks Cyril and Methodius. But the oldest monuments of Slavic writing know two alphabets - Cyrillic and Glagolitic. In science, there have been disputes for a long time about which of these alphabets appeared earlier, the creators of which of them were the famous "Thessalonica brothers" (from Thessalonica, the modern city of Thessaloniki). At present, it can be considered established that Cyril in the second half of the 9th century; the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic) was created, in which the first translations of church books were written for the Slavic population of Moravia and Pannonia. At the turn of the IX-X centuries. On the territory of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of the synthesis of the Greek script, which has long been widespread here, and those elements of the Glagolitic alphabet that successfully conveyed the features of the Slavic languages, an alphabet arose, which later received the name Cyrillic. In the future, this easier and more convenient alphabet replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the only one among the southern and eastern Slavs.

The adoption of Christianity contributed to the widespread and rapid development of writing and written culture. It was essential that Christianity was adopted in its Eastern, Orthodox version, which, unlike Catholicism, allowed worship in national languages. This created favorable conditions for the development of writing in the native language.

Together with liturgical books and theological literature, the first inter-Slavic language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language, penetrated to Russia from Bulgaria, which had adopted Christianity 120 years earlier. This language, usually referred to as Old Church Slavonic (or Church Slavonic), became the language of worship and religious literature. At the same time, the Old Russian language was formed on the local East Slavic basis, serving various spheres of cultural, social and state life. It is the language of business writing, historical and narrative literature, both original and translated. This is the language of Russian Truth, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", Russian chronicles, "Instructions" by Vladimir Monomakh and other monuments.

The development of writing in the native language led to the fact that the Russian Church from the very beginning did not become a monopoly in the field of literacy and education. The spread of literacy among the democratic strata of the urban population is evidenced by birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod and other cities. These are letters, memos, owner's notes, training exercises, etc. Thus, the letter was used not only to create books, state and legal acts, but also in everyday life. Often there are inscriptions on handicraft products. Ordinary citizens left numerous graffiti inscriptions on the walls of churches in Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir and other cities.

School education also existed in Ancient Russia. After the introduction of Christianity, Vladimir ordered that the children of the “best people”, that is, the local aristocracy, be given “for book teaching”. Yaroslav the Wise created a school in Novgorod for the children of elders and clerics. The training was conducted in the native language. They taught reading, writing, the basics of Christian doctrine and arithmetic. There were also schools of the highest type, preparing for state and church activities. One of them existed at the Kiev Caves Monastery. Many prominent figures of ancient Russian culture came out of it. In such schools, along with theology, they studied philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, historical writings, sayings of ancient authors, geographical and natural science works.

Highly educated people met not only among the clergy, but also in secular aristocratic circles. Such “book men” (as the chronicle calls well-educated and well-read people) were, for example, princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmo-mysl, Konstantin Vsevolodovich Rostovsky and others. Knowledge of foreign languages ​​was widespread in the aristocratic environment. Women were also educated in young families. The Chernigov princess Efrosinya studied with the boyar Fyodor and, as it is said in her life, although she “does not study in Athens, but study Athenian wisdom”, having mastered “philosophy, rhetoric and all grammar”. Princess Efrosinya Polotskaya "was smart about book writing" and wrote books herself.

Education was highly valued. In the literature of that time one can find many panegyrics to the book, statements about the benefits of books and “book teaching”: books are “the essence of the river that waters the universe”; “if you search diligently in the books of wisdom, you will find great benefit for your soul”; "the estate of books more than gold"; “sweet honey juice and goodness is sugar, about his bookish mind is kinder.”

Most of the written monuments of the pre-Mongol period perished during numerous fires and foreign invasions. Only a small part of them has survived - only about 150 books. The oldest of them are the Ostromir Gospel, written by deacon Gregory for the Novgorod posadnik Ostromir in 1057, and two Izborniks by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The high level of professional skill with which these books were executed testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the first half of the 11th century, as well as to the skills of “book construction” that had been established by that time.

The correspondence of books was concentrated mainly in monasteries. However, in the XII century. in large cities, the craft of "book describers" also arose. This testifies, firstly, to the spread of literacy among the urban population, and secondly, to an increase in the need for a book that the monastic scribes could not satisfy. Many princes kept copyists of books, and some of them copied books themselves. Of the 39 known to us by name scribes of the XI-XIII centuries. only 15 belonged to the clergy, the rest did not indicate their affiliation to the church. Nevertheless, the main centers of literacy continued to be monasteries and cathedral churches, in which there were special workshops with permanent teams of scribes. Here not only books were copied, but also chronicles were kept, original literary works were created, foreign books were translated. One of the leading centers was the Kiev Caves Monastery, which developed a special literary trend that had a great influence on the literature and culture of Ancient Russia. According to chronicles, already in the XI century. in Russia, libraries with up to several hundred books were created at monasteries and cathedral churches.

Separate randomly preserved copies do not fully reflect the richness and diversity of the books of Kievan Rus. Many literary works, undoubtedly existing in pre-Mongolian times, have come down to us in later lists, and some of them have died altogether. According to historians of the Russian book, the book fund of Ancient Russia was quite extensive and numbered in the hundreds of titles.

The needs of the Christian cult required a large number of liturgical books that served as a guide in the performance of church rites (Mineas, Triodion, Books of Hours). With the adoption of Christianity, the appearance of the main books of Holy Scripture was associated.
The translated literature of religious and secular content occupied a large place in the book fund of Ancient Russia. The selection of works for translation was determined by the internal needs of society, the tastes and needs of the reader. At the same time, the translators did not set as their goal the exact transfer of the original, but sought to bring it as close as possible to reality, to the demands of the time and environment.

Works of secular literature were subjected to especially significant processing. Elements of folklore were widely penetrated into them, and the techniques of original literature were used. In the future, these works were repeatedly processed and became Russian in nature.

The appearance of the works of Christian writers of the 3rd-7th centuries is connected with the tasks of spreading the Christian doctrine. ("fathers of the church") and collections of their works. The writings of John Chrysostom were especially widely disseminated as part of the collections Chrysostom, Chrysostom, etc.

In Russia, as well as throughout the medieval world, collections of sayings of famous poets, philosophers, and theologians were popular. In addition to quotations from the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the "fathers of the church", they included excerpts from the works of ancient writers and philosophers. The most popular was the collection "Bee", in which there were especially many sayings of ancient authors. In Russia, these collections were revised and supplemented in accordance with the needs of the time. They were widely used by ancient Russian writers in their works.

A large place in literature was occupied by the lives of the saints, which served as an important means of introducing the Christian worldview and morality. At the same time, they were fascinating reading, in which elements of the miraculous were intertwined with folk fantasy, giving the reader a variety of historical, geographical and everyday information. On Russian soil, many of the lives were revised and supplemented with new episodes. In Russia, such a specific type of religious literature as the apocrypha spread - Jewish and Christian legendary works that were not recognized by the official church as reliable, were even considered heretical.

Being closely connected by their origin with ancient mythology, pre-Christian religion and Middle Eastern folklore, the apocrypha reflected popular ideas about the universe, good and evil, about the afterlife. The amusingness of the stories, the closeness to oral folk legends contributed to the spread of the Apocrypha throughout the medieval world. The most popular in Russia were the “Walking of the Virgin through Torment”, “Revelations of Methodius of Patara”, legends associated with the name of the biblical king Solomon, etc. On Russian soil, apocryphal literature was further developed, its plots were used in literature, fine arts, folklore.

Of particular interest, associated with the desire to determine the place of Russia, all Slavs in world history, were historical works. Byzantine historical literature was represented by the chronicles of George Amartol, John Malala, the "Chronicler soon" of Patriarch Nicephorus and some other less significant works. Based on these writings, an extensive compilation on world history was compiled - "The Hellenic and Roman Chronicler".

In Russia, there were also works that reflected medieval ideas about the universe, about natural phenomena, semi-fantastic information about the animal and plant world (“Physiologist”, various “Six Days”). One of the most popular works throughout the Middle Ages was the "Christian Topography" by Cosmas (Kozma) Indikoplov, a Byzantine merchant who committed in the 6th century. travel to India.
Secular military tales, which were widespread in world medieval literature, were also translated. Among them is one of the largest works of this genre - "The History of the Jewish War" by Josephus Flavius, in Russian translation called "The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem". The story about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great - "Alexandria", which goes back to Hellenistic literature, was very famous. This is a typical adventure novel of the Hellenistic era, in which there is a lot of legendary and fantastic. The Russian reader in "Alexandria" was attracted by the image of a courageous warrior hero, a description of outlandish countries with their fantastic inhabitants and numerous battles. In the future, adapting to the demands of the time, "Alexandria" was reworked and less and less consistent with the original.

Another military tale, popular until the 17th century, was "Deed of Devgen". This is a Byzantine epic poem of the 10th century, subjected to fairly free processing. about the exploits of Digenis Akrit, a courageous Christian warrior, defender of the borders of his state. The plot of the work, individual episodes, the image of the hero bring it closer to the Russian heroic epic, which is even more emphasized in the translation using elements of oral folk poetry.

Especially popular in Russia were also stories of a fabulously didactic nature, the plots of which date back to the literatures of the Ancient East. Their peculiarity is the abundance of aphorisms and wise sayings, to which the medieval reader was a great hunter. One of them was The Tale of Akira the Wise, which arose in Assyro-Babylonia in the 7th-5th centuries.
BC e. This is an action-packed work, a significant part of which is moralizing parables.

One of the most widespread works of medieval world literature is The Tale of Barlaam and Joasa-fe, known in different versions in more than 30 languages ​​of the peoples of Asia, Europe and Africa. The story is a Christian version of the life of the Buddha. It contains a large number of moralizing parables, which, using everyday examples understandable to everyone, explain current worldview problems. In Russia, it was the most widely read work for several centuries, until the 17th century. This story is also reflected in oral folk art.

The translated literature contributed to the enrichment and development of the original Old Russian literature. However, this does not give grounds to associate its occurrence only with the influence of translated works. It was caused by the internal political and cultural needs of the emerging early feudal society. Translation literature did not precede the development of Russian original literature, but accompanied it.

Literature. public thought

Russian written literature arose on the basis of the rich traditions of oral folk art, which has its roots in the depths of centuries. Behind many original works of ancient Russian literature is folklore as one of the most important sources. Oral poetry had a great influence on the artistic features and ideological orientation of written literature, on the formation of the Old Russian language.
A characteristic feature of Russian medieval literature is its sharp publicism. Monuments of literature are at the same time monuments of social thought. Their content is based on the most important problems of society and the state.

One of the main original genres of emerging Russian literature was chronicle writing. Chronicles are not just monuments of literature or historical thought. They are the largest monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. They embodied a wide range of ideas and concepts of that time, reflected the diversity of the phenomena of social life. Throughout the Middle Ages, chronicle writing played an important role in the political and cultural life of the country.

The most significant monument of chronicle writing is The Tale of Bygone Years, written in 1113 by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, and which has come down to us as part of the later chronicles of the 14th-15th centuries.

However, The Tale of Bygone Years is not the very first chronicle work. It was preceded by other chronicles. It can be considered as precisely established the existence of codes compiled in the 70s and 90s. 11th century in the Kiev Caves Monastery. Sufficiently substantiated is the opinion about the existence of the Novgorod chronicle of the 50s. 11th century Chronicle work was also carried out in other centers (for example, at the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv). Echoes of chronicle traditions, different from those of Kiev Pechersk, are found in later chronicle collections.

As for the time of the emergence of Russian chronicle writing and its initial stages, much remains unclear here. There are several hypotheses on this issue. A. A. Shakhmatov believed that the "Ancient" code was compiled in 1039 in connection with the establishment of the Kyiv Metropolis. According to D.S. Likhachev, the first historical work was “The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Russia”, compiled in the 40s. 11th century and served as the basis for the code of the 70s. M.N. Tikhomirov associated the beginning of chronicle writing with the “Tale of the Russian Princes” (Xv.), Compiled, in his opinion, shortly after the baptism of Russia and had a non-church character. B. A. Rybakov considers the code created in 996-997 to be the first chronicle code. at the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv and summarized the material of brief weather records and oral stories.

By the end of the X century. attributed the beginning of Russian chronicles and L. V. Cherepnin. Thus, the formation of original Russian literature is associated with the emergence of chronicle writing, which most fully reflected its characteristic features.

Like any chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of material included in it. In addition to brief weather records and more detailed stories about political events, it includes texts of diplomatic and legal documents, and retellings of folklore legends, and excerpts from monuments of translated literature, and records of natural phenomena, and independent literary works - historical stories, lives, theological treatises and teachings, words of praise. This allows us to speak of the chronicle as a synthetic monument of medieval culture, as a kind of encyclopedia of medieval knowledge. But this is not a simple mechanical summary of heterogeneous material, but an integral work, distinguished by the unity of the theme and ideological content.

The purpose of the work is formulated by the author in its title: "Behold the tales of time years, where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began first to reign, and where did the Russian land come from." From these words it follows that the origin and history of the state were considered by the author inextricably linked with the origin and history of Kievan princely power. At the same time, the history of Russia was given against a broad background of world history.

The Tale of Bygone Years is a monument to medieval ideology. The position of the author affected both the selection of material and the assessments of various facts and events. The main attention is paid to the events of political history, the deeds of princes and other representatives of the nobility. The economic life and life of the people remain in the shadows. The chronicler is hostile to the mass popular movements, considering them as "the execution of God." The religious worldview of its compiler was clearly manifested in the annals: he sees the ultimate cause of all events and actions of people in the action of divine forces, “providence”. But religious reasoning and references to the will of God often hide a practical approach to reality, attempts to identify real causal relationships between events.

The "Tale", which arose at a time when the disintegration of the state into separate lands and principalities, was imbued with the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, which was conceived as the unification of all lands under the rule of the great princes of Kyiv. The author sharply condemned the princely strife, justified the need for "unity" in the face of external danger. He addresses the princes: “Why do you quarrel between yourselves? And the abominations are destroying the Russian land. The theme of the heroic struggle with external enemies runs through the entire chronicle. The patriotic orientation, the ability to rise to the understanding of the interests of the whole people bring the "Tale" closer to the oral folk epic and become the leading trends in all ancient Russian literature.

Having served as the basis for local chronicles of the period of political fragmentation, The Tale of Bygone Years played a huge role in establishing and preserving the idea of ​​the unity of Russia in the minds of subsequent generations who lived during the time of princely strife and the severe trials of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. It had a great influence on the formation of the self-consciousness of the Russian people over the next few centuries.
From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicle writing. In conditions of political fragmentation, it acquires a regional character. The number of centers of chronicle writing is significantly increasing. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, chronicles were kept in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl, in Polotsk and Smolensk, in Vladimir and Rostov, in Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky, in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Ryazan and in other cities.

The chroniclers focused on local events, considering the history of their lands as a continuation of the history of Kievan Rus and keeping the Tale of Bygone Years as part of the local chronicles. Generic princely annals, biographies of individual princes, historical stories about relations between princes are being created. Their compilers were, as a rule, not monks, but boyars and warriors, and sometimes the princes themselves. This strengthened the secular trend in chronicle writing.

Local individual features appeared in the annals. So, in the Galicia-Volyn Chronicle, which tells about the life of Prince Daniel Romanovich and is distinguished by a secular character, the main attention was paid to the struggle of the princely power with the recalcitrant boyars, and to the description of internecine wars. In the annals, there are almost no arguments of a religious nature, but echoes of retinue poetry are clearly audible in it.

The local character is especially distinguished by the Novgorod chronicle, which meticulously and accurately recorded the events of intracity life. It most fully reflected the democratic orientation, the role of the urban population in public life. The style of the Novgorod chronicles is distinguished by simplicity and efficiency, the absence of church rhetoric.
The Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle reflected the interests of the ever-increasing power of the grand duke. In an effort to assert the authority of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality and substantiate the claims of its princes to political and ecclesiastical supremacy in Russia, the chroniclers did not limit themselves to describing local events, but tried to give the chronicle a general Russian character. The leading trend of the Vladimir vaults is the rationale for the need for a unified and strong power of the Vladimir prince, which seemed to be the successor to the power of the great princes of Kyiv. Religious reasoning was widely used for this. This tradition was adopted in the XIV-XV centuries. Moscow chronicle.

One of the oldest monuments of ancient Russian literature is the "Word of Law and Grace". It was written in the 30s and 40s. 11th century court princely priest Hilarion, who later became the first Russian metropolitan of Kyiv. Using the form of a church sermon, Hilarion created a political treatise, which reflected the pressing problems of Russian reality. Contrasting "grace" (Christianity) with "law" (Judaism), Hilarion rejects the concept of God's chosen people inherent in Judaism and affirms the idea of ​​transferring heavenly attention and disposition from one chosen people to all mankind, the equality of all peoples. With its edge, the Word is directed against Byzantium's claims to cultural and political supremacy in Eastern Europe. Hilarion opposes this position with the idea of ​​equality of all Christian peoples, regardless of the time of their baptism, puts forward the theory of world history as a process of gradual and equal introduction of all peoples to Christianity. Russia, having adopted Christianity, took a worthy place among other Christian states. Thus, a religious substantiation of the state independence and international significance of Russia is given. The "Word" is permeated with patriotic pathos, pride in the Russian land, which "is known and heard by all ends of the earth."

The emergence of original hagiographic literature is connected with the struggle of Russia for the assertion of church independence. And this typical ecclesiastical genre is characterized by the penetration of journalistic motives into it. Princely lives became a variety of hagiographic literature. An example of such a life is the "Tale of Boris and Gleb." The cult of Boris and Gleb, who became victims of internecine struggle (they were killed in 1015 by their brother Svyatopolk), had a deep political meaning: it consecrated the idea that all Russian princes were brothers. At the same time, the work emphasized the obligation to “subjugate” the younger princes to the older ones. "Tale" differs significantly from the canonical life of the Byzantine type. His main idea is not the martyrdom of the saints for the faith, but the unity of the Russian land, the condemnation of princely civil strife. And in terms of form, the "Tale", although it uses hagiographic techniques, is, in essence, a historical story with the exact name of names, facts, with a detailed description of real events.

The “Reading about Boris and Gleb” written by Nestor is different in character. It is much closer to the hagiographic canon.

By removing all specific historical material, the author made the exposition more abstract, and strengthened the edifying and ecclesiastical elements. But at the same time, he retained the main ideological trend of the Tale: the condemnation of fratricidal strife and the recognition of the need for the obedience of the younger princes to the elders in the family.

Important social, political and moral problems are touched upon in Vladimir Monomakh's Teachings. This is a political and moral testament of an outstanding statesman, imbued with deep anxiety for the fate of Russia, which has entered a difficult period in its history. The princely congress, held in 1097 in Lyubech, recognized the fact of the fragmentation of Russia and, putting forward the principle “everyone keeps his fatherland”, sanctioned a new form of political system. Monomakh's "instruction" was an attempt to prevent princely strife and preserve the unity of Russia in the face of fragmentation. Behind the demands to observe the norms of Christian morality, a certain political program is clearly visible.

The central idea of ​​the "Instruction" is the strengthening of state unity, for which it is necessary to strictly observe the requirements of the established legal order, to subordinate the interests of individual principalities, personal and family interests of princes to national tasks. The prince must live in peace with other princes, unquestioningly obey the "oldest", not oppress the younger ones, and avoid unnecessary bloodshed. Monomakh reinforces his instructions with examples from his own life. Monomakh’s letter to Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich of Chernigov is attached to the “Instruction”, in which he, wishing the “brothers” and the “Russian land” well, advocating the unity of actions of the Russian princes against external enemies, addresses with a proposal for reconciliation to his old enemy and the murderer of his son, thus demonstrating the triumph of public duty over personal feelings.

One of the duties of Prince Monomakh considers a righteous judgment, the protection of "smerds", "wretched", "widows" from the harassment they inflict. This trend, aimed at mitigating the acuteness of social contradictions, was also reflected in the legislation (the “Ustav of Vladimir Monomakh”, which was included in Russkaya Pravda).

The question of the place of princely power in the life of the state, its duties and methods of implementation becomes one of the central ones in the literature. The idea arises of the need for strong power as a condition for a successful struggle against external enemies and overcoming internal contradictions. This thought is permeated with the "Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" (first quarter of the 13th century). Condemning the dominance of the boyars and the arbitrariness perpetrated by them, the author creates an ideal image of the prince - the protector of orphans and widows, all the destitute, caring for his subjects. The idea of ​​the need for a “princely thunderstorm” is being developed. But by “thunderstorm” we mean not despotism and arbitrariness, but the viability and reliability of power: only princely “strength and thunderstorm” can protect subjects “like a solid fence” from the arbitrariness of “strong people”, overcome internal strife and ensure external security.

The relevance of the issue, the brightness of the language, the abundance of proverbs and aphorisms, sharply satirical attacks against the boyars and the clergy provided this work with great popularity for a long time.

The most outstanding work of ancient Russian literature, in which its best aspects were embodied, is The Tale of Igor's Campaign (end of the 12th century). It tells about the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185 by the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But not the description of this campaign is the purpose of the author. It serves him only as an occasion for reflection on the fate of the Russian land. The author sees the reasons for the defeats in the struggle against the nomads, the reasons for the disasters of Russia in the princely civil strife, in the egoistic policy of the princes, thirsting for personal glory. “A gloomy hour arose” when “princes began to forge sedition on themselves; and filth from all countries come with victories to the Russian land.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is an all-Russian work, it does not contain local features. It testifies to the high patriotism of its author, who managed to rise above the narrowness of the interests of his principality to the height of all-Russian interests. Central to the "Word" is the image of the Russian land. The author appeals to the princes with an ardent appeal to stop the strife and unite in the face of external danger in order to “block the gates of the Field”, stand up “for the Russian land”, protect the southern borders of Russia.

The author belonged to the milieu. He constantly used the concepts of “honor” and “glory” characteristic of her, but filled them with a broader, patriotic content. Condemning the princes for the search for personal "glory" and "honor", he first of all advocated the honor and glory of the Russian land.

The Word is a secular work. It lacks church rhetoric, Christian symbols and concepts. It is closely connected with oral folk art, which is manifested in the poetic animation of nature, in the widespread use of pagan symbols and images of pagan mythology, as well as forms typical of folklore (for example, crying) and figurative and expressive means. Both the ideological content and the artistic form of the work testify to the connection with folk art.

The Tale of Igor's Campaign embodied the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature of this period: a living connection with historical reality, citizenship and patriotism. The appearance of such a masterpiece testified to the high degree of maturity of the literature of Ancient Russia, its originality, and the high level of development of culture as a whole.

Architecture. Painting

Until the end of Hv. in Russia there was no monumental stone architecture, but there were rich traditions of wooden construction, some forms of which subsequently influenced stone architecture. After the adoption of Christianity, the construction of stone temples begins, the principles of construction of which were borrowed from Byzantium. In Russia, the cross-domed type of church became widespread. The interior space of the building was divided by four massive pillars, forming a cross in plan.

On these pillars, connected in pairs by arches, a “drum” was erected, ending with a hemispherical dome. The ends of the spatial cross were covered with cylindrical vaults, and the corner parts - with domed vaults. The eastern part of the building had ledges for the altar - the apse. The inner space of the temple was divided by pillars into naves (spaces between rows). There could have been more pillars in the temple. In the western part there was a balcony - the choirs, where the prince with his family and his entourage were during the service. A spiral staircase led to the choir, located in a tower specially designed for this purpose. Sometimes the choirs were connected by a passage to the princely palace.

The first stone building was the Church of the Tithes, built in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century. Greek masters. It was destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars in 1240. In 1031-1036. in Chernigov, Greek architects erected the Transfiguration Cathedral - the most "Byzantine", according to experts, the temple of Ancient Russia.

The pinnacle of South Russian architecture in the 11th century. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev is a huge five-aisled church built in 1037-1054. Greek and Russian masters. In ancient times it was surrounded by two open galleries. The walls are made of rows of hewn stone, alternating with rows of flat bricks (plinths). The same laying of the walls was in most other ancient Russian churches. Kievan Sophia was already significantly different from the Byzantine models in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably due to the traditions of wooden construction. In the XI century. in Kyiv, several more stone buildings were erected, including secular ones. Assumption Church of the Caves Monastery marked the beginning of the spread of single-dome churches.

Following the Kyiv Sophia, Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk. Novgorod Sophia (1045-1060) differs significantly from the Kyiv Cathedral. It is simpler, more concise, stricter than its original. It is characterized by some artistic and constructive solutions that are not known to either South Russian or Byzantine architecture: masonry walls of huge, irregularly shaped stones, gable ceilings, the presence of blades on the facades, an arched belt on the drum, etc. This is partly due to Novgorod's connections with Western Europe and the influence of Romanesque architecture. Novgorod Sophia served as a model for subsequent Novgorod buildings of the early 12th century: Niko-lo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral (1113), Antoniev Cathedrals (1117-1119) and Yuryev (1119) monasteries. The last princely building of this type is the Church of John on Opoki (1127).

From the 12th century a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture, which differs from the architecture of the previous time by the smaller scale of buildings, the search for simple, but at the same time expressive forms. The most typical was a cubic temple with a pozakomar covering and a massive dome. While maintaining the general features of architecture in different centers of Russia, its local features were developed.

From the second half of the XII century. Byzantine influence noticeably weakens, which was marked by the appearance in ancient Russian architecture of temples of a tower-like shape, unknown to Byzantine architecture. The earliest example of such a temple is the Cathedral of the Spaso-Evfrosiniev Monastery in Polotsk (before 1159), as well as the Cathedral of Michael the Archangel in Smolensk (1191-1194) and the Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa in Chernigov (end of the 12th century). The aspiration of the building upwards was emphasized by a tall slender drum, a second tier of zakomars and decorative kokoshniks at the base of the drum.

The influence of the Romanesque style becomes more noticeable. It did not affect the foundations of ancient Russian architecture - the cross-domed structure of the temple with a pozakomarnoy coating, but affected the external design of buildings: arched belts, like buttresses on the outer walls, groups of semi-columns and pilasters, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals and, finally, a bizarre stone carving on the outer surface of the walls. The use of elements of the Romanesque style spread in the 12th century. in the Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn principalities, and then in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus.

Unfortunately, the architectural monuments of the Galicia-Volyn land are poorly preserved. 30 stone buildings of Galich are known only from archaeological data. An example of the local architectural school was the Assumption Cathedral, built in Galich under Yaroslav Osmomysl. The peculiarity of Galician architecture consisted in the organic combination of the Byzantine-Kyiv spatial composition with Romanesque building technology and elements of Romanesque decoration.

The establishment of a republican system in Novgorod led to a significant democratization of culture, which might not have affected architecture either. Reduced princely construction. Boyars, merchants, groups of parishioners began to act as customers of churches. Churches were the centers of social life in certain areas of the city, often they served as a warehouse for goods, a place for storing the property of the townspeople, brothers gathered in them. A new type of temple arose - a four-pillar cubic temple with one dome and three apses, distinguished by its small size and simplicity in the design of facades, such as, for example, the Church of the Annunciation in Arkazhy near Novgorod (1179), Peter and Paul on Sinichya Gorka (1185-1192), Paraskeva Fridays at the Market (1207). Similar temples were also built by the princes in their country residence on Gorodische. This type belonged to the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa built in 1198, which was badly damaged during the Great Patriotic War (the frescoes were destroyed).

The oldest monument of Pskov architecture is the Church of the Savior in the Mirozhsky Monastery (mid-12th century), which has come down to us, differing from the Novgorod buildings in the absence of pillars. The squat three-domed cathedral of the Ivanovo Monastery resembles the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa. Of the monuments of Staraya Ladoga, only the churches of George and the Assumption have survived, similar in their architectural appearance to the Novgorod monuments.

Stone construction in the Vladimir-Suzdal land begins at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. with the erection of a cathedral in Suzdal by Vladimir Monomakh, but it reaches its peak in the 12th - early 13th centuries. In contrast to the harsh architecture of Novgorod, the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus was of a ceremonial character, distinguished by the sophistication of proportions and the elegance of lines.

The influence of Romanesque architecture had a particular effect on Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. According to the chronicle, Andrei Bogolyubsky, building up his capital, collected “masters from all the lands”, among them were “Latins”. Strong ties with Galicia-Volyn Rus also had an effect, from where construction techniques were probably borrowed. The outer and inner surfaces of the walls were laid out from precisely fitted and smoothly polished white stone blocks, and the gap was filled with stones and poured with a solution of lime. This is a typical Romanesque masonry. Many decorative elements have a Romanesque origin, in particular, relief stone carvings.

The first buildings of this type are the Transfiguration Cathedral in Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, near Suzdal, erected in 1152. These are single-domed four-pillar churches, which are still characterized by heaviness of proportions and decorative simplicity of facades.

Construction in Vladimir under Andrei Bogolyubsky reached a great upsurge. City fortifications are being erected, from which the white-stone Golden Gates have been preserved. In the suburban princely residence of Bogolyubov, a castle was built, consisting of a complex of buildings surrounded by walls with white stone towers. "The Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin, which was the center of the entire ensemble, was connected by passages with a two-story stone palace. Only the remains of these structures have come down to us. In 1158-1161 The Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165) was built, richly decorated with carved stone.

In the last quarter of the XII century. the construction of the architectural ensemble of Vladimir is being completed. After a fire in 1184, the Assumption Cathedral was rebuilt and received its final form.

Ensembles of Rozhdestvensky (1192-1196) and Knyaginin (1200-1201) monasteries are formed.
A special place in the Vladimir architecture of this time is occupied by the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, built in 1194-1197. in the center of the princely palace. It is distinguished by the richness of white stone carving and is a magnificent synthesis of architecture, plastic arts and painting. In the plastic design of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral, the artistic style of local masters is much more clearly manifested in comparison with the sculpture of the previous time. Stone carving acquires a unique originality: under the influence of the traditions of folk wooden carving, it becomes flatter and more ornamental, in contrast to the “round” Romanesque.

Russian stone-cutters preferred more cheerful motifs to the gloomy and frightening plots that prevailed in Western European Romanesque plastic. The carved decor of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral is called “a poem in stone” - biblical, apocryphal and pagan motifs are intricately intertwined in it.

Traditions and techniques developed by the masters of the Vladimir school continued to develop in Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Nizhny Novgorod. St. George's Cathedral of Yuryev-Polsky (1230-1234) was covered with decorative carvings from top to bottom. Relief images against the background of a continuous carpet pattern formed complete narrative compositions. Unfortunately, the cathedral has not been preserved in its original form.

After its vaults and upper parts of the walls collapsed, it was rebuilt in 1471, while the blocks of white stone were partially lost and mixed up. Georgievsky Cathedral is the last monument of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. It is called the "swan song" of Russian architecture of the pre-Mongol period.

With the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium, new types of monumental painting came to Russia - mosaics and frescoes, as well as easel painting (icon painting). Byzantium not only introduced Russian artists to a new painting technique for them, but also gave them an iconographic canon, the immutability of which was strictly guarded by the church. This, to a certain extent, fettered artistic creativity and predetermined a longer and more stable Byzantine influence in painting than in architecture.

The earliest surviving works of ancient Russian painting were created in Kyiv. According to the chronicles, the first temples were decorated by visiting Greek masters, who introduced the system of arrangement of plots in the interior of the temple, as well as the manner of planar writing, into the existing iconography. The mosaics and frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral are distinguished by severe beauty and monumentality. They are made in a strict and solemn manner, characteristic of Byzantine monumental painting. Their creators skillfully used a variety of shades of smalt, skillfully combined the mosaic with the fresco. Of the mosaic works, the images of the Mother of God Oranta in the altar apse and the chest image of Christ the Almighty in the central dome are especially significant. All images are imbued with the idea of ​​greatness, triumph and inviolability of the Orthodox Church and earthly power.

The wall paintings of the two towers of the Kyiv Sophia are unique monuments of secular painting. It depicts scenes of princely hunting, circus competitions, musicians, buffoons, acrobats, fantastic animals and birds. By their nature, they are far from ordinary church paintings. Among the frescoes in Sofia are two group portraits of the family of Yaroslav the Wise.

The mosaics of the Golden-domed Cathedral of the Mikhailovsky Monastery are distinguished by a rather free composition, liveliness of movements and individual characteristics of individual characters. Well-known is the mosaic image of Dmitry Solunsky - a warrior in a gilded shell and a blue cloak. By the beginning of the XII century. expensive and time-consuming mosaics are completely replaced by frescoes.

In the XII-XIII centuries. in the painting of individual cultural centers, local features are becoming more and more noticeable. In the second half of the XII century. a specific Novgorod style of monumental painting is being formed, which reaches its fullest expression in the murals of the churches of St. George in Staraya Ladoga, the Annunciation in Arkazhy and especially the Savior-Nereditsa. In these fresco cycles, in contrast to the Kyiv ones, there is a noticeable desire to simplify artistic techniques, to an expressive interpretation of iconographic types, which was dictated by the desire to create art that is accessible to the perception of a person inexperienced in theological subtleties, capable of directly influencing his feelings. To a lesser extent, the democratism of Novgorod art manifested itself in easel painting, where local features are less pronounced. The icon “Angel with Golden Hair” belongs to the Novgorod school, attracting attention with the lyricism of the image and light coloring.

Fragments of frescoes of the Dmitrievsky and Assumption Cathedrals in Vladimir and the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha, as well as several icons, have come down to us from the painting of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia of the pre-Mongolian time. Based on this material, the researchers consider it possible to talk about the gradual formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal school of painting. The fresco of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral depicting the Last Judgment is the best preserved. It was created by two masters - a Greek and a Russian. The faces of the apostles and angels, painted by the Russian master, are simpler and sincere, they are endowed with kindness and softness, they do not have the intense psychologism characteristic of the manner of the Greek master. Several large icons of the 12th - early 13th centuries belong to the Vladimir-Suzdal school. The earliest of them is the “Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” (mid-12th century), stylistically close to the famous “Vladimir Mother of God” - an icon of Byzantine origin. Of great interest is the icon "Dmitry of Thessalonica" (it is believed that this is a portrait image of Prince Vsevolod the Big Nest). Dmitry is depicted sitting on a throne in expensive clothes, in a crown, with a half-drawn sword in his hands.

The spread of writing, the appearance of handwritten books led to the emergence of another type of painting - book miniatures. The oldest Russian miniatures are in the Ostromir Gospel, which contains images of the three evangelists. The bright ornamental surroundings of their figures and the abundance of gold make these illustrations look like a piece of jewelry (like cloisonné enamel). Prince Svyatoslav's Izbornik (1073) contains a miniature depicting the prince's family, as well as marginal drawings resembling the secular painting of Kyiv Sophia.

in the discipline "Culturology"

on the topic: "Culture of Ancient Russia"

INTRODUCTION

1. ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY

2. WRITING AND LITERATURE

3. ARCHITECTURE

4. PAINTING

5. ARTISTIC CRAFT

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The culture of Ancient Russia is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, "Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world." Scientists note the openness and synthesis (from the word "synthesis" - bringing together into a single whole) of ancient Russian culture. The interaction of the heritage of the Eastern Slavs with the Byzantine and, consequently, ancient traditions created an original spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flourishing is the X-first half of the XIII century. (pre-Mongol period).

The Russian people have made a valuable contribution to world culture, creating hundreds of years ago works of literature, painting and architecture that have not faded over the centuries. Acquaintance with the culture of Kievan Rus and the Russian principalities of the era of feudal fragmentation convinces us of the fallacy of the opinion that once existed about the primordial backwardness of Rus.

Russian medieval culture of the X-XIII centuries. earned high praise from both contemporaries and descendants. Eastern geographers pointed the way to Russian cities, admired the art of Russian gunsmiths who prepared special steel (Biruni). Western chroniclers called Kyiv an adornment of the East and a rival of Constantinople (Adam of Bremen). The learned presbyter Theophilus of Paderborn in his technical encyclopedia of the 11th century. admired the products of Russian goldsmiths - the finest enamels on gold and black on silver. In the list of countries whose masters glorified their lands with one or another type of art, Theophilus put Russia in a place of honor - only Greece is ahead of it. The refined Byzantine John Tsetses was so fascinated by Russian bone carving that he sang in verse the pixida (carved box) sent to him, comparing the Russian master with the legendary Daedalus.

1. ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY

Oral folk art includes proverbs and sayings, songs and tales, ditties and conspiracies. An integral part of the art of Russia was musical, singing art. The Tale of Igor's Campaign mentions the legendary storyteller-singer Boyan, who "put" his fingers on the live strings and they "rumbled glory to the princes themselves." On the frescoes of St. Sophia Cathedral, we see the image of musicians playing woodwind and stringed instruments - lute and harp. The talented singer Mitus in Galich is known from chronicles. In some church writings directed against Slavic pagan art, street buffoons, singers, dancers are mentioned; There was also a folk puppet theater. It is known that at the court of Prince Vladimir, during feasts, those present were entertained by singers, storytellers, performers on stringed instruments.

An important element of the entire ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, legends, epics, proverbs, aphorisms. Many features of the life of people of that time were reflected in wedding, drinking, funeral songs. So, in ancient wedding songs, they also spoke about the time when brides were kidnapped, “kidnapped”, in later ones - when they were ransomed, and in songs already of Christian times, it was about the consent of both the bride and parents to marriage.

A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about the defenders of their native land from enemies, recorded on paper in the 19th century. Folk storytellers sing the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total, more than 50 main characters act in epics). They turn their appeal to them: “You stand up for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand up for the glorious capital city of Kyiv!” It is interesting that in the epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented by the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Russia was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

2. WRITING AND LITERATURE

With the adoption of Christianity, the rapid development of writing began. Writing was known in Russia in pre-Christian times (the mention of "features and cuts", the middle of the 1st millennium; information about agreements with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; a clay vessel found near Smolensk with an inscription made in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the enlighteners of the Slavs Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the 10th-11th centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Russia. The oldest handwritten books have come down to us - the Ostromir Gospel (1057) and two Izborniks (collection of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Russia was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark writings (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastic schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.

There was an opinion that the ancient Russian culture was "dumb" - it was believed that it had no original literature. This is not true. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, the lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which does not belong to any of the known genres), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.

In the XI-XII centuries. Chronicle appears in Russia. The annals describe not only the sequence of events that took place, but also contain biblical texts, documents are recorded, and comments are given by the compilers of the annals. The oldest of the chronicles that have come down to us - "The Tale of Bygone Years" - was created around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions that open The Tale of Bygone Years: “Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kyiv began first to reign, and how the Russian land began to eat” - they already speak of the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in isolated lands, but all of them, as a model, turned to The Tale of Bygone Years.

Another genre of ancient Russian literature is life. Life (hagiography) tells about the holy life of a clergyman or secular person elevated to the rank of a saint. Life demanded from its author a firm adherence to established rules. The life composition was divided into three parts: introduction, central part, conclusion. In the introduction, the author had to apologize for his lack of skill in writing. And the conclusion was dedicated to the praise of the hero of life. The biography of the saint is described directly in the central part. Life refers to the pre-realistic genre, because. only the positive properties of the hero are described. Negatives are omitted. The result is a "sugary" image of the saint. In this case, life comes close to icon painting. According to legend, the chronicler Nestor is credited with the authorship of the life dedicated to the murdered Boris and Gleb, as well as the founder of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, Abbot Theodosius.

Of the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Word on Law and Grace” stands out, created by Hilarion, the first Russian-born metropolitan, in the middle of the 11th century. These are thoughts about power, about the place of Russia in Europe. Wonderful is Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching, written for his sons. The prince must be wise, merciful, just, educated, indulgent and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country demanded from Prince Daniil Zatochnik, the author of the “Prayer”, brilliant in language and literary form.

The unknown author of the greatest work of ancient Russian literature, The Tale of Igor's Campaign (end of the 12th century), also called for the consent and reconciliation of the princes. A real event - the defeat of the Seversky prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - was only an occasion for the creation of the "Word", amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, the power of the figurative system. The author sees “the Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye. Danger threatens Russia, and the princes must forget the strife in order to save her from destruction.

A significant difference between Russian culture and the culture of most countries of the East and West is the use of the native language. Arabic for many non-Arab countries and Latin for a number of Western European countries were alien languages, the monopoly of which led to the fact that the national language of the states of that era is almost unknown to us. The Russian literary language was used everywhere - in office work, diplomatic correspondence, private letters, in fiction and scientific literature. The unity of the national and state language was a great cultural advantage of Russia over the Slavic and German countries, in which the Latin state language dominated. Such a broad literacy was impossible there, since to be literate meant to know Latin. For the Russian townspeople, it was enough to know the alphabet in order to immediately express their thoughts in writing; this explains the widespread use in Russia of writing on birch bark and on "boards" (obviously waxed).

3. ARCHITECTURE

A major contribution to the history of world culture is Russian medieval architecture. Russia for many years was a country of wood, and its architecture, pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, huts were built of wood. In a tree, a Russian person, first of all, expressed his perception of building beauty, a sense of proportion, the fusion of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture dates back mainly to pagan Russia, then stone architecture is associated with Christian Russia. Unfortunately, the ancient wooden buildings have not survived to this day, but the architectural style of the people has come down to us in later wooden structures, in ancient descriptions and drawings. Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, the presence of various kinds of outbuildings - cages, passages, canopies. Intricate artistic woodcarving was a traditional decoration of Russian wooden buildings.

IX-XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI century XVII c Writing, education 1. Creation of the Slavic alphabet (Cyril and Methodius) 2. Monasteries - centers of book learning and education. 3. Birch bark letters as evidence of the spread of literacy in cities and suburbs 1. Replacing parchment with paper. 2. The monasteries still remain the centers of bookishness - the birth of book printing Ivan Fedorov. The first book - "Apostle" - 1564, "Book of Hours", Psalter Correspondence of I. the Terrible with A. Kurbsky. 3. Basic knowledge of salt production, history 1. Growth of printed matter. 2. The emergence of public and private libraries - the opening of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy by Simeon Polotsky Mr. - "Primer" by V. Burtsev, "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky 5. "Synopsis" - historical work by I. Gizel

IX-XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI century literature 1. "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor (beginning of the XII century) 2. "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion (40s of the XI century" 3. "Instruction for Children" V. Monomakh XIIv 4. "Word about Igor's Campaign" (about the events of 1185) 5. "Word and Prayer" by D. Zatochnik (XII-XIII centuries) 1. Sophony Ryazanets "Zadonshchina" - the end of the XIV century 2. Creativity of Epiphanius the Wise "The Life of Sergius Radonezh" 3. Af. Nikitin "Journey beyond three seas" 4. "The Life of Al. Nevsky" (XIII-XIV centuries) 1. Sylvester "Domostroy" 2. A. Kurbsky "The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow" 3. Encyclopedic work " The Great Menaion" under the direction of Macarius 4. Philotheus "Moscow - the Third Rome" 5. Yermolai Erasmus "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" 6. The emergence of the genre of journalism (Ivan Peresvetov and Avraamiy Palitsyn) Seat of Azov" (1642) 2. Appearance of autobiographical works "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" 3. Satirical stories 4. Creativity of Simeon of Polotsk 5. Verses - poetic works love, household, satirical motives

IX –XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI to XVII architecture . Intercession on the Nerl Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1326; 1475 A. Fioravanti) 2. Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (house church of the royal family 3. Faceted Chamber - M. Fryazin Place of solemn receptions 4. Trinity-Sergius Monastery -1337. 5. Andronikov Monastery (Moscow, 1427) 6. Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery-(Vologda 1397) 7. Solovetsky Monastery (Arkhangelsk) 1. Construction of Kitay-gorod (F. Horse) 2. Wall of the White City (F. Horse) 3. Novodevichy Convent (in honor of the capture of Smolensk by Vasily III) 4. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye 1532 (in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible) 5. Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin A. Fryazin () Tomb of Russian tsars. 6. Kazan Cathedral. Barma. Postnik (in honor of the capture of Kazan by Ivan IV) 7. Bell tower of Ivan the Great Bon Fryazin. 1505 1. A new style appears - Naryshkin baroque 2. Palace in Kolomenskoye The work of architects Bazhen Ogurtsov, Larion Ushakov, Chirin, Savin.

IX –XIII centuries XIV-XV centuries XVI century XVII in painting 1. Icon painting of Alympius 1. Icon painting of Theophanes the Greek. Painting of the Cathedral of the Annunciation. 2. Creativity of Andrey Rublev () 1. Diony's iconography. () Assumption Cathedral. 2. The Stroganov school of painting 1. The emergence of the parsuna genre 2. Simeon Ushakov () master of the armory travelers Af. Nikitin - study of the Crimea, Turkey, India. “Journey beyond three seas” 1. Semen Ivanovich Dezhnev () exploration of Siberia, passage from the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific, the strait between Asia and America 2. Khabarov Erofey Pavlovich () development of the Amur. 3. Atlasov Vladimir Vasilyevich () - exploration of Kamchatka

Culture test. * A1 Indicate the earliest cathedral in terms of construction time? 1) Sofia in Kyiv 2) Dmitrievsky in Vladimir 3) Sofia in Novgorod 4) Assumption in Vladimir * A2. A popular genre in Russia, in which the narration went on over the years: 1) chronicle 2) chronicle 3) life 4) walking * A3. Read an excerpt from a literary work and indicate the year to which it refers: “It was not decent for us, brothers, to begin in old words a difficult story about the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich ... Let's start, brothers, the story from the ancient Vladimir to the present Igor ... "1))) ) 1224 * A4. Under what ruler was the unique Kremlin ensemble formed, which still amazes with its beauty today? 1) Ivan Kalita 2) Dmitry Donskoy 3) Ivan III 4) Simeon Proud * А5. Under which prince was the idea "Moscow - the third Rome" formed 1) Ivan III 2) Ivan Kalita 3) Dmitry Donskoy 4) Vasily III

* A6. The author of "Journey beyond three seas" is 1) Aristotle Fioravanti 2) Fedor the horse 3) Aleviz Fryazin (New) 4) Marco Fryazin * A7. The temple built by Grozny in honor of the victory over Kazan 1) St. Basil's Cathedral 2) Assumption Cathedral 3) Ivanovo Church 4) Church of the Ascension * A8. Name the artist who worked in the Armory in the 17th century 1) Georgy Zinoviev 2) Ivan Maksimov 3) Tikhon Filatiev 4) Simon Ushakov * A9. Which of the buildings was built by the architect Kazakov a) Gubin House b) Golitsyn Hospital c) Winter Palace d) Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin e) Academy of Arts building e) Mikhailovsky Palace 1) ABG 2) AVG 3) BGE 4) AVD * A10. Who organized the first professional theater? 1) Volkov 2) Pashkevich 3) Sumarokov 4) Shlykova

* A 11 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the appearance of parsuna 2) the adoption of a law on compulsory primary education 3) the beginning of book printing 4) the opening of the Academy of Sciences * A 12 The “secularization of culture” of the 17th century is evidenced by 1) the emergence of a professional theater 2) transition to a new chronology 3) the beginning of printing 4) the creation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy * A13 “Polyany lived separately in those days ... and there were three brothers - Khoriv, ​​Shchek, Kyi and their sister - Lybid. And they built a city and named it in honor of their brother - Kyiv ... "1)" Cathedral Code 2) "Russian Truth" 3) "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh" 4) "The Tale of Bygone Years" * A 14 "Father" of the Russian theater is called 1) Biron 2) Volkova 3) Radishcheva 4) Polzunov * A 15 The creator of the first steam engine is considered 1) Biron 2) Volkov 3) Polzunov 4) Rokotov * A 16 In ancient Russian literature, “Life” was called 1) a weather record of events 2) a description of the activities of Christian saints 3) teaching princes to heirs 4) folk epic tales

* A 17 A picturesque work of art of small size was called 1) stained-glass window 2) headpiece 3) filigree 4) miniature * A 18 Russian portrait painter of the 18th century 1) Rokotov 2) Kiprensky 3) Bryullov 4) Voronikhin * A 19 The appearance of book printing in Russia is associated with named after 1) Simeon Ushakov 2) Ivan Peresvetov 3) Andrei Kurbsky 4) Ivan Fedorov * A 20 Russian architects of the 18th century 1) Tatishchev, Shcherbakov 2) Kazakov, Bazhenov 3) Shubin, Argunov 4) Horse, Chokhov * A 21 Navigator who discovered the strait between Asia and America 1) Bering 2) Poyarkov 3) Ushakov 4) Nakhimov * A 22 The names of Theophan the Greek, Dionysius, Simeon Ushakov are associated with the development of 1) jewelry art 2) architecture 3) chronicle writing 4) icon painting *

C1 Arrange in chronological order the appearance of historical monuments * A) St. Basil's Cathedral b) "The Tale of Bygone Years" c) "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" d) the white stone Kremlin in Moscow * C2 Correlate * A) Daniil Zatochnik 1) "Zadonshchina" * B ) Zephanius of Ryazan 2) "Prayer" * C) Nestor 3) "Teaching children" * D) Vladimir Monomakh 4) "The Tale of Bygone Years" 5) "Domostroy" * Correlate: * A) Marco Fryazin 1) "Trinity" * B ) Andrei Rublev 2) Chamber of Facets * B) Aristotle Fioravanti 3) Archangel Cathedral * D) Aleviz Novy Fryazin 4) Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin 5) Kazan Cathedral

* References: * 1. History from ancient times to the end of the 18th century, textbook for universities. Ed. A.N. Sakharov. M: Ast., 2003 * 2.V.N. Alexandrov History of Russian Art, Minsk, 2007 * 3.L. A. Belyaev. Fortresses and armaments of Eastern Europe. M: Book House,